LA 


IRLF 


GIFT   OF 


REPORT 

OF  THE 

EXAMINATION 

OF  THE 

SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

OF 

BRIDGEPORT,  CONNECTICUT 


CONDUCTED    BY 

James  H.  Van  Sickle 


Issued   by 

The  Board  of  Education 
1913 


SPRINGFIELD,  MASS.,  February  20,  1913. 

To  the  Special  Committee  on  Investigation  of  the  School  System, 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 

GENTLEMEN: — I  have  the  honor  to  present  herewith  my  report 
upon  the  condition  and  needs  of  the  schools  of  your  city.  In  making 
this  investigation,  I  have  been  assisted  in  portions  of  the  work  as 
follows: 

In  comparing  the  expenditures  for  schools  in  Bridgeport  with 
those  of  other  cities,  by  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Director  of  the  Division 
of  Education,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York  City. 

In  the  study  of  the  City  Normal  School,  by  Dr.  Andrew  W.  Edson, 
Associate  Superintendent  of  Schools,  New  York  City. 

In  the  study  of  the  High  School  situation,  by  Dr.  Henry  S.  West, 
of  the  College  for  Teachers,  University  of  Cincinnati,  serving  as  a 
city  assistant  superintendent  of  schools,  assigned  to  high  school 
supervision. 

In  the  study  of  the  work  in  history  in  the' grades  and  the  High 
School,  by  Mr.  Wilbur  F.  Gordy,  specialist  in  history,  Hartford,  Conn., 
formerly  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Springfield,  Mass. 

In  the  study  of  industrial  conditions,  by  Mr.  Egbert  E.  MacNary, 
Supervisor  of  Manual  Training  and  Principal  of  the  Vocational  School, 
Springfield,  Mass. 

In  the  study  of  arithmetic  work  in  the  grades,  by  Mr.  Edwin 
Hebden,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  and  Research,  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  Baltimore,  Md. 

In  the  study  of  language  work  in  the  grades,  by  Mr.  Edward  H. 
Webster,  Head  of  the  Department  of  English  in  the  High  School  of 
Commerce,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Without  the  aid  of  these  men,  each  of  whom  is  an  expert  in  his 
particular  field,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for  me,  within  the 
time  available,  to  make  sufficiently  extended  observations  in  all  of 
the  fields  covered  by  this  report  to  give  warrant  for  the  positive 
recommendations  which  I  am  now  able  to  present  for  your  considera- 
tion. I  have,  however,  spent  many  days  in  your  schools  and  have 
given  personal  attention  to  every  phase  of  the  school  work  here  dis- 
cussed. Therefore,  while  making  grateful  acknowledgement  of  the 
indispensable  aid  which  I  have  received  from  each  of  my  assistants, 
I  assume  full  responsibility  for  every  portion  of  this  report. 

3 


In  making  my  report,  I  desire  to  call  your  attention  at  the  out- 
let to  those  findings  and  recommendations  which  seem  to  me  of  great- 
est importance.  The  subjects  mentioned  in  section  I  are  treated  at 
greater  length  in  the  pages  which  follow,  along  with  a  number  of 
others  which  nave  seemed  to  me  worthy  of  consideration. 

Such  a  report  as  this  must  necessarily  mention  defects  before  it 
can  propose  remedies.  If  more  space  seems  to  be  taken  in  setting 
forth  the  shortcomings  of  the  school  system  than  in  commendatory 
observations  it  is  not  because  of  any  lack  of  excellent  features  to 
commend.  The  schools  are  well-organized,  considering  the  serious 
financial  limitations  under  which  they  have  been  conducted.  Much 
has  been  accomplished  in  the  face  of  almost  insurmountable  ob- 
stacles, and  a  well-knit,  coherent  system  exists  which  may  be  de- 
pended upon  to  respond  to  all  reasonable  demands,  provided  proper 
financial  backing  is  given.  When  the  rapid  growth  of  the  schools  is 
considered,  with  their  constant  demands  upon  a  too  limited  super- 
visory force  for  administrative  adjustment  and  re-adjustment,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  some  matters  of  importance  have  lacked  attention. 

Very  truly  yours, 

JAMES  H.  VAN  SICKLE. 


I.      PRELIMINARY  COMMENTS  AND  RECOMMENDATIONS. 
Expenditures. 

The  expenditures  for  education  in  Bridgeport  are  low.  When  a 
growing  city  attempts,  as  Bridgeport  has  done,  to  meet  all  its  needs 
for  new  school  buildings  out  of  the  annual  tax  levy,  other  school 
needs  are  bound  to  suffer.  Future  generations  may  properly  be  al- 
lowed to  share  the  cost  of  improvements  as  permanent  as  school- 
houses.  Not  enough  schoolrooms  are  provided  and  they  are  not  ade- 
quately supplied  with  textbooks  and  other  teaching  equipment.  Sal- 
aries of  teachers  are  not  high  enough  and  are  not  so  regulated  as  to 
furnish  adequate  reward  for  superior  service.  A  higher  maximum 
salary,  if  awarded  upon  the  basis  of  merit,  and  not  merely  length  of 
service,  would  prove  a  good  investment.  The  facilities  which  are 
furnished  the  superintendent  for  the  oversight  of  the  work  in  the 
growing  system  of  schools  for  which  he  is  held  responsible  are  notably 
deficient.  His  office  force  should  be  increased  and  he  should  have 
additional  assistance  in  the  field.  While  there  are  things  in  the  school 
system  that  must  be  criticized  adversely,  there  are  many  other  things 
that  command  approval.  Many  of  the  defects  to  which  attention  is 
called  owe  their  existence  to  the  limited  appropriations  upon  which 
the  schools  have  had  to  depend. 

Overcrowding  breeds  retardation  and  early  elimination  of  pupils 
from  school.  Lack  of  sufficient  clerical  force  in  the  superintendent's 
office  makes  it  impossible  to  keep  and  utilize  such  records  as  are 
needed  in  studies  looking  toward  improvement. 

There  are  far  too  many  pupils  in  the  lower  grades  in  proportion 
to  the  whole  number  in  school.  This  means  that  many  are  repeating 
grades.  Too  many  leave  school  altogether  before  they  have  received 
more  than  a  modicum  of  education.  Bridgeport's  rank  is  very  low 
in  these  particulars.  The  city  cannot  afford  to  give  such  meagre 
training  to  its  future  citizens. 

Teaching  and  Supervision. 

The  spirit  of  the  teaching  force  is  notably  good.  The  teachers 
are  co-operative,  loyal  to  their  supervising  officers  and  faithful  in 
following  out  directions.  They  are  doing  team  work.  All  this  makes 
for  the  good  of  the  service.  Teachers  do  not  demand  more  of  their 
pupils  in  the  matter  of  obedience  to  properly  constituted  authority 
than  they  themselves  are  willing  to  exemplify  in  their  own  conduct. 

The  demands  of  office  routine  have  so  encroached  upon  the  time 
needed  for  professional  supervision  that  it  has  not  been  possible  to 
raise  the  work  in  all  subjects  to  the  level  attained  by  those  that  are 
best  taught.  For  instance,  in  the  grades  the  classroom  work  in 
geography  is  good,  while  that  in  history  is  extremely  poor.  There 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  teachers  who  do  well  in  geography  would 
be  unable  to  do  equally  well  in  history  if  there  had  been  time  to  give 
that  subject  the  same  effective  supervision  that  geography  has  evi- 
dently received. 


The  discipline  of  the  schools  is  good.  The  attitude  of  pupils  to- 
ward their  teachers  is  one  of  confidence  and  respect.  At  first  glance 
the  order  in  some  schoolrooms  seems  rather  too  rigid,  yet  stern  re- 
pression is  not  in  evidence. 

The  greatest  strength  in  teaching,  as  observed  in  classroom  after 
classroom,  is  plainly  in  drill  rather  than  in  reasoning. 
Here  we  see  one  disadvantage  in  limiting  admission  to 
the  teaching  force  to  local  candidates  trained  in  the 
City  Normal  School.  There  ds  too  much  sameness  of  method, 
too  little  variety  in  procedure.  All  have  learned  in  the  same  school 
to  do  things  in  the  same  way.  By  employing  some  teachers  trained 
elsewhere,  the  city  would  not  necessarily  secure  individuals  of  great- 
er personal  power;  the  advantage  would  lie  rather  in  the  discussions 
that  would  arise  'through  the  comparison  of  ways  learned  elsewhere 
with  those  employed  by  the  locally  trained  teachers.  Practically  all 
of  the  teachers  in  Bridgeport  have  received  their  training  in  the 
local  training  school.  No  matter  how  good  the  ideals  and  practices 
of  the  school  may  be,  there  must  be  relatively  few  differences  of 
opinion  among  its  graduates  leading  to  discussion,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence less  thought  must  be  put  into  the  work  than  where  teachers 
who  have  learned  different  ways,  or  who  have  worked  out  individual 
ways  of  doing  things,  are  working  side  by  side  with  the  uniformly 
trained  home  product.  Teachers  but  begin  their  training  in  the 
normal  school;  their  after-training  is  equally  important.  Conditions 
most  favorable  for  good  after-training  are  those  which  force  teach- 
ers away  from  mere  routine  and  stimulate  them  to  do  their  own 
thinking. 

Course  of  Study. 

As  an  outline  of  work,  the  course  of  study  is  ingenious  in  ar- 
rangement and  convenient  for  reference.  The  outline  of  the  require- 
ment of  a  grade  in  any  given  subject  may  be  seen  at  a  glance,  and 
the  statement  of  requirement  is  terse  but  not  sufficiently  definite  un- 
less supplemented  by  explanatory  matter.  The  outline  has  been  re- 
duced to  its  lowest  ter,ms,  and  a  syllabus  of  each  subject,  indicating 
more  fully  the  ground  to  be  covered  and  the  ends  to  be  sought  in 
teaching  should  accompany  the  outline.  The  appendix  to  the  course 
contains  such  a  syllabus  for  grade  III  geography,  together  with  sev- 
eral pages  of  suggestions  on  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  throughout 
the  grades,  and  brief  directions  for  teaching  spelling.  It  is  prob- 
able that  similar  directions  for  the  teaching  of  the  other  subjects  in 
the  curriculum  have  been  given  in  teachers'  meetings,  but  if  these 
were  summed  up  for  each  subject  in  a  printed  syllabus,  the  effect 
would  be  more  permanent  and  teachers  new  to  the  city  would  be- 
come more  immediately  effective. 

In  several  subjects  the  textbooks  form  the  basis  for  the  work, 
and  certain  pages  in  the  book  are  assigned  to  certain  grades.  If  the 


requirements  for  each  grade  were  stated  under  subject  headings,  and 
teachers  directed  to  teach  given  phases  of  the  subject,  rather  than 
certain  pages  of  a  textbook,  there  would  be  greater  incentive  to  re- 
search and  supplementary  study  of  other  textbooks. 

In  geography,  grades  V  to  VII,  time  might  be  saved  if  the  sylla- 
bus were  to  make  mention  of  the  more  important  topics  to  be  studied 
and  to  indicate  the  desirability  of  a  more  cursory  study  of  unim- 
portant detail.  In  the  review  in  geography  outlined  for  grade  VIII, 
this  plan  has  been  approximated  and  the  relative  importance  of  the 
study  of  the  various  countries  is  indicated  by  the  time  allotted  to 
them. 

The  division  of  the  time  allotted  to  a  subject  in  the  daily  pro- 
gram between  study  and  recitation  seems  admirable  in  theory,  and 
its  results  so  far  as  they  were  observed  in  practice  call  for  com- 
mendation. 

Beading. 

As  an  exclusive  method,  the  method  of  teaching  beginning  read- 
ing employed  in  the  first  grades  of  Bridgeport  is  not  the  best  now 
available. 

The  method  employed  in  teaching  children  to  read  has  a  very 
direct  bearing  upon  their  future  progress  in  the  schools.  During 
the  first  two  or  three  years  of  a  child's  school  life,  proficiency  in 
reading  is  the  main  requisite  for  promotion  from  grade  to  grade,  and 
a  pupil's  progress  throughout  the  school  course  is  influenced  largely 
by  his  power  to  read  and  interpret  the  books  to  which  he  has  access. 

By  means  of  the  most  approved  modern  methods,  it  is  possible 
for  five-year  old  children  to  learn  to  read  in  a  surprisingly  short 
period  of  time,  and  without  apparent  mental  or  nervous  strain.  They 
proceed  naturally  from  the  oral  repetition  of  a  familiar  rhyme,  poem, 
or  story,  to  the  recognition  of  the  printed  symbols  in  which  it  is  told 
on  blackboard  or  chart,  and  they  thus  become  acquainted  with  many 
sentences  and  words  that  stand  for  familiar  ideas.  The  printed  se- 
lection is,  therefore,  not  merely  "a  sequence  of  word  sounds  and 
word  names"  to  them,  but  it  "has  a  distinctive  total  sound  appearance 
and  meaning."  In  this  case  the  early  vocabulary  is  not  limited  by 
the  necessity  lor  using  phonetic  words,  and  in  consequence  a  large 
percentage  of  first  grade  pupils  are  able  by  the  middle  of  the  first 
year  in  school  to  read  with  much  pleasure  to  themselves  the  delight- 
ful illustrated  story  books  that  publishers  are  supplying. 

The  work  in  phonics  is  not  allowed  to  interfere  with  this  early 
recognition  of  sentences  and  words,  but  is  pursued  as  a  separate  study 
until  needed  by  the  children  as  a  key  to  the  multitude  of  unfamiliar 
words  that  they  meet  as  they  delve  into  school  and  library  books. 

Prom  the  first,  attention  is  centered  upon  the  meaning  of  what 
is  read,  and  the  context  serves  as  an  aid  to  word  recognition.  Children 


are  encouraged  to  read  fluently,  and  to  this  end  short  phrases  printed 
on  slips  of  paper  are  read  by  pupils  at  a  glance. 

Children  do  not  begin  to  apply  their  knowledge  of  phonics  until 
they  have  acquired  power  to  recognize  separate  words  and  phrases 
with  considerable  rapidity. 

One  of  the  most  effective  of  the  modern  methods  used  in  'teach- 
ing children  to  read  is  thus  briefly  outlined  because  of  the  conviction 
that  strong  and  intensive  work  in  this  subject  during  the  first  school 
year,  supplemented  by  a  generous  supply  of  suitable  and  interesting 
reading  matter,  must  tend  to  decrease  retardation  in  the  schools  of 
any  city. 

Geography. 

The  work  done  in  this  subject  deserves  special  commendation.  It 
\ra«  during  the  geography  hour  that  the  wisely  conceived  plan  of 
dividing  the  time  between  preparation  and  recitation  was  observed 
at  greatest  advantage.  During  the  first  half  of  the  period,  the  chil- 
dren, with  their  books  open  before  them,  read  and  discussed  with  the 
teacher  the  lesson  for  the  following  day.  There  was  no  stiffness  and 
formality  about  this  exercise.  In  all  the  geography  classes  visited, 
there  existed  a  very  pleasant  relation  between  teacher  and  pupils. 
The  conditions  for  learning,  except  as  to  over-large  classes,  were 
at  their  best.  After  a  pleasant,  and  in  most  cases,  lively  discussion 
of  the  lesson  for  the  next  day,  books  were  closed  and  the  recitation 
of  the  lesson  learned  the  day  before  was  taken  up.  In  all  of  the 
principal  subjects,  this  study-recitation  plan  is  prescribed.  Not  the 
least  of  its  benefits  is  the  tendency  to  reduce  home  study  to  a  min- 
imum. 

In  locative  geography,  the  aim  is  to  have  the  children  fix  in  their 
minds  such  a  picture  of  the  map  that  recitations  can  be  made  from 
the  mental  picture.  Wall  maps  are  often  used,  however,  in  this  study 
of  locations,  and  some  excellent  rapid  competitive  drill  exercises 
were  observed,  each  lasting  about  five  minutes. 

Cause  and  effect  elements  in  geography  receive  due  attention, 
and  the  study  of  grand  divisions  is  conducted  in  accordance  with  a 
carefully  prepared  outline. 

Arithmetic. 

The  work  in  arithmetic  is  carefully  planned  and  the  teaching  evi- 
dently effective.  The  emphasis  is  placed  upon  fundamentals,  and  ac- 
curacy in  abstract  work  is  strongly  emphasized.  The  course  of  study 
also  lays  stress  upon  the  intelligent  solution  of  concrete  problems. 
When  one  considers  the  examination  results  in  this  subject,  as  set 
forth  in  another  part  of  this  report,  the  question  arises  whether  ths 
efforts  which  have  been  put  forth  to  attain  the  high  standard  in 
abstract  work  which  the  schools  have  achieved  have  not  resulted  in 
fixing  too  high  a  standard  for  promotion  in  this  subject,  particularly 

8 


in  the  lower  grades,  thus  swelling  the  number  of  retarded  children. 
For  instance,  in  the  Bridgeport  course  of  study  for  first  grade,  all 
the  combinations  and  separations  through  twelve  are  required,  where- 
as in  most  other  school  systems  it  is  not  customary  to  go  beyond  ten, 
and  in  many  cities  no  formal  work  in  arithmetic  is  required  till  the 
beginning  of  the  second  grade,  even  though  children  do  not  enter  till 
they  are  six  years  of  age.  The  Bridgeport  requirements  in  second 
and  third  grade  are  also  more  exacting  than  in  the  average  city.  This 
is  a  question  that  seems  to  call  for  further  investigation. 

English. 

There  is  much  in  the  work  in  English  that  is  commendable,  but  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  the  means  by  which  the  present  course  may  be 
strengthened,  emphasis  in  this  report  is  placed  upon  apparent  weak- 
nesses. The  work  in  English  is  divided  into  Language  (punctuation  and 
technical  grammar),  Composition  (oral  and  written),  and  Spelling.  Each 
is  considered  as  a  separate  subject  rather  than  as  a  part  of  a  unified 
whole  with  self-expression  as  the  end  in  view.  Much  time  and  effort 
are  thus  wasted.  By  considering  punctuation,  technical  grammar  and 
spelling  as  practical  aids  in  writing  and  speaking,  and  not  as  subjects 
to  be  mastered  for  facts,  greater  efficiency  could  be  secured  in  .the 
study  of  English.  To  accomplish  this,  two  things  should  be  done. 
(1)  Detailed  directions  should  be  given  to  the  teachers  now  in  the 
system  in  the  form  of  an  English  syllabus  designed  primarily  to  show 
the  most  modern  methods  of  teaching  composition  and  the  relation 
of  this  subject  to  technical  grammar,  punctuation  and  spelling;  (2) 
A  thorough  course  in  English  composition  and  literature  should  be 
required  of  all  students  in  the  Normal  School.  Such  a  course  would 
give  the  future  teachers  a  breadth  of  training  and  a  depth  of  scholar- 
ship that  are  absolutely  essential  if  efficient,  original,  and  flexible 
methods  are  to  be  expected  of  them. 

Medical  Inspection  and  Dental  Clinic. 

One  school  physician  and  two  nurses  are  employed  by  the  City 
Department  of  Health.  They  devote  their  entire  time  to  the  work 
in  the  schools.  During  the  course  of  the  year  one  routine  inspection 
of  each  school  is  made.  The  eye-lids,  throat,  skin  and  hair  of  each 
child  are  examined.  Each  child  is  also  examined  ifor  defective  nasal 
breathing,  hypertrophied  tonsils,  tubercular  lymph  nodes,  chorea, 
orthopedic  defects,  malnutrition,  defective  teeth,  defective  palate, 
defective  vision,  and  defective  hearing.  The  Department  of  Health 
maintains  a  clinic  to  which  the  children,  whose  parents  are  unable 
to  employ  a  private  physician,  .are  referred.  During  the  second  round 
of  visits  to  the  schools  the  school  physician  gives  talks  on  personal 
hygiene  in  addition  to  the  work  of  inspection.  The  nurses  devote 
themselves  chiefly  to  the  follow-up  work  in  the  homes,  but  they  may 
be  called  into  the  schools  to  assist  in  the  treatment  of  cases  at  the 
discretion  of  the  medical  inspector.  They  are  also  present  at  the 
clinics  to  assist  the  doctors. 


The  Board  of  Education  has  made  provision  for  an  experimental 
dental  clinic  on  advanced  preventive  and  educational  lines.  The  plan 
involves  actual  surface  treatment  of  children's  teeth  once  a  month 
by  a  dental  nurse.  An  appropriation  of  $5000  has  been  made,  by 
means  of  which  the  plan  is  to  be  tried  out  in  one  school.  In  this  one 
school  the  teeth  of  those  children  in  the  first  five  grades,  whose  par- 
ents are  too  poor  to  pay  for  dental  service,  will  be  filled  by  the  grad- 
uate dentist  in  charge.  No  doubt  bad  health  is  partly  responsible  for 
the  slow  progress  of  many  children  in  their  studies.  Bridgeport  is 
to  be  commended  for  recognizing  the  fact  that  the  human  mechanism 
cannot  reach  its  full  efficiency  unless  all  of  the  parts  are  in  good 
working  order,  and  for  planning  to  give  the  child's  body  the  first  con- 
sideration instead  of  the  last. 

Industrial  Education. 

There  is  great  need  of  developing  and  extending  the  limited  high 
school  opportunities  now  open  to  grammar  school  graduates,  and  of 
differentiated  courses  in  the  grades  immediately  below  the  high 
school,  particularly  in  the  interest  of  those  pupils  who  will  not  have 
the  advantage  of  a  high  school  course.  An  industrial  city  like  Bridge- 
port has  especial  need  of  such  adjustment  in  its  school  program,  both 
in  elementary  grades  and  in  high  school,  as  will  aid  its  boys  and  girls, 
when  they  enter  the  industries,  to  start  with  the  best  possible  pros- 
pects of  advancement.  This  important  function  of  the  schools  is  more 
fully  discussed  in  connection  with  "The  Industrial  High  School"  and 
"The  Industries."  It  is  not  assumed  nor  suggested  that  all  of  the 
recommendations  made  in  these  two  sections  of  the  report  should  be 
acted  upon  at  once.  A  modest  beginning  should  be  made  in  those 
directions  where  the  needs  seem  to  be  most  immediate  and  pressing, 
subsequent  expansion  being  based  on  continued  study  and  experi- 
mentation. 


10 


II.     THE  SCHOOL  BOARD. 

Authority. 

The  Board  of  Education  is  bi-partisan  and  consists  of  twelve 
members.  Nomination  is  equivalent  to  election.  Each  of  the  domi- 
nant political  parties  nominates  two  members,  thus  the  selection  of 
board  members  is  by  party  rather  than  by  people. 

'The  Board  is  divided  into  four  committees,  Schools  (teachers), 
Finance,  Schoolhouses,  and  Supplies. 

In  the  appointment  of  teachers  the  Board  takes  the  initiative, 
not  the  Superintendent,  though  in  practice  -his  approval  is  necessary 
for  appointment  There  is  considerable  local  pressure  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  residents  or  the  friends  of  residents. 

The  Board  has  full  control  of  all  school  matters,  including  the 
purchase  of  sites  and  the  erection  of  buildings.  It  is  dependent  upon 
the  City  Council,  however,  for  appropriations,  which  are  based  on 
estimates  submitted  annually. 

Organization  of  the  Schools. 

There  are  centrally  located  schools  having  eight  grades,  and 
others  with  only  the  lower  grades  which  serve  as  feeders  to  the  full 
eight  grade  schools.  The  elementary  schools  are  organized  on  the 
basis  of  45  to  50  pupils  per  teacher,  and  they  average  about  46  to  47 
per  teacher.  The  per  capita  cost  is  low,  being  less  than  $27. 

The  supervision  is  insufficient,  yet  in  this  item  there  has  been 
a  'healthy  growth.  About  ten  years  ago  an  itinerant  substitute  was 
appointed  to  take  the  room  taught  by  the  principal  of  a  small  build- 
ing about  one  day  in  two  weeks,  giving  the  principal  this  time  to 
inspect  the  other  rooms  in  her  building.  Last  year  this  plan  was 
extended  so  as  to  provide  one-half  day's  teaching  of  the  principal's 
class  in  each  of  the  small  buildings,  alternating  morning  and  after- 
noon sessions  by  weeks. 

Notwithstanding  the  growth  of  the  system,  the  administration 
office  is  furnished  only  one  general  office  clerk  and  one  supply  clerk 
and  one  assistant  whose  time  is  mostly  taken  at  the  telephone  switch- 
board. The  time  of  the  general  office  clerk  is  so  fully  taken  up  by 
the  general  business  of  the  Board  that  he  can  give  almost  no  time 
to  the  superintendent's  work. 

There  are  special  supervisors,  one  each  in  music,  drawing,  writ- 
ing, and  physical  education. 

Comments  and  Recommendations. 

1.  All  nominations  of  teachers  for  appointment  should  be  made 
•by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  Judging  the  relative  qualifications 
of  teachers  is  an  expert  service  for  which  he  is  paid,  and  the  com- 
munity is  entitled  to  "have  this  service  rendered  by  him  under  condi- 

11 


tions  which  will  insure  untrammeled  judgment  on  his  part.  It  is  the 
Board's  right  to  disapprove  any  nomination  so  made,  but  neither  the 
Board  as  a  whole,  nor  any  member  of  the  Board,  should  take  the 
initiative  in  this  highly  professional  matter  of  selecting  teachers. 
When  they  do  so,  they  cannot,  in  the  nature  of  things,  secure  the 
best  service  in  this  vital  matter  which  the  Superintendent  is  capable 
of  rendering;  for  often,  if  he  loves  peace,  he  will  be  tempted  to  re- 
main silent  rather  than  cause  friction  and  dissension  by  opposing 
the  appointment  of  a  mediocre  candidate  who  has  been  nominated  by 
a  member  of  the  governing  board. 

2.  The  grouping  of  the  upper  grades  in  centrally  located  schools 
is  to  be  commended.    This  grouping  should  be  still  further  emphasized 
when  the  building  now  occupied  by  the  High  School  becomes  avail- 
able for  grade  work.    This  feature  has  received  mention  in  another 
part  of  this  report,  as  has  also  the  overcrowding  of  schoolrooms. 

3.  The    Superintendent   should   have   added   to   his   force    in  the 
field,  one  assistant  and  a  supervisor  of  primary  work.    He  should  have 
added  to  his  office  force   a  stenographer   and   another  clerk  trained 
in  statistical  methods.     The  plan  by  which  principals  of  small  build- 
ings secure  time  for  supervision  has  much  to  commend   it. 

4.  The  collection  and  accounting  of  the  children's  savings  appears 
to  encroach  to  a   wholly   unwarranted   extent  upon   the   too   limited 
time  which  a  principal  has  for  supervision,  and,  as  conducted,  is  an 
unreasonable   burden   upon  the   teachers.     If   continued,   the   system 
should  be  changed  to  one  which   would  conserve  the  time  of  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  by  utilizing  the  willing  aid  of  outside   organiza- 
tions.    Such  arrangements  have  been  made  in  other  cities. 


III.     THE  FINANCIAL  SUPPOBT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

In  a  very  real  sense,  education  can  be  bought  and  paid  for.  The 
perpetual  problem  of  the  community  is  how  many  of  its  children  it 
is  willing  to  afford  to  educate  and  how  well.  Within  limits  that  have 
never  yet  been  reached  anywhere  each  community  may  have  for  its 
children  as  much  and  as  good  education  as  that  community  is  able 
and  willing  to  pay  for.  How  much  and  how  good  education  it  actual- 
ly gets,  depends,  first,  on  'how  much  money  it  spends,  and,  second, 
on  whether  or  not  it  uses  each  dollar  appropriated  so  as  to  get  the 
best  and  largest  educational  return. 

Unfortunately,  no  standards  exist  whereby  we  may  exactly  meas- 
ure all  the  returns  on  the  educational  investment  of  a  city.  But  we 
can  compare  the  school  expenditures  of  one  city  with  those  of  other 
cities  similar  in  size  and  discover  whether  the  first  city  is  paying 
more  or  less  than  the  others  for  the  education  of  each  child  and  for 
different  educational  purposes.  Such  a  comparative  analysis  has 
been  made  of  the  school  expenditures  of  Bridgeport. 

12 


School  Receipts. 

Bridgeport  is  a  very  rapidly  growing  city  of  something  more  than 
100,000  population  and  spending  each  year  for  public  schools  over 
a  third  of  a  million  dollars.  This  money  comes  from  three  sources, — 
local  taxes,  state  funds,  and  tuition  fees.  Roughly  speaking,  of  every 
one  hundred  dollars  received,  86  come  from  local  taxes,  13  from  state 
funds  and  1  comes  from  tuition  fees. 

Expenditures  in  Bridgeport  and  Eleven  Other  Cities. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  present  study,  data  as  to  school  expendi- 
tures have  been  secured  from  Bridgeport  and  the  eleven  other  cities 
most  nearly  of  the  same  population  for  which  the  figures  are  avail- 
able in  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education. 

The  comparison  of  so  many  cities  selected  solely  on  the  basis 
described  avoids  the  danger  of  being  unfair  which  might  arise  if 
only  three  or  four  cities  were  compared  or  if  specially  rich  or  un- 
usually progressive  ones  were  chosen  for  the  purpose.  In  order  of 
size  these  twelve  cities  are  the  following: 

City  Population  in  1910 

Tacoma,    Wash 83,743 

Springfield,   Mass 88,926 

Lynn,  Mass 89,336 

Salt  Lake   City,   Utan    92,777 

Camden,  New  Jersey   94,538 

Bridgeport,   Conn 102,054 

Spokane,  Wash.    104,402 

Cambridge,  Mass 104,839 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 112,571 

Dayton,    Ohio    116,577 

Omaha,   Neb.    124,096 

New  Haven,  Conn 133,605 

Table  I  is  the  fundamental  table  on  which  most  of  the  follow- 
ing comparisons  are  based.  The  figures  for  Bridgeport  are  for  the 
school  year  1911-1912.  Those  for  the  other  cities  are  from  the  re- 
port of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  for  1911.  They  are 
the  latest  figures  available.  They  refer  only  to  current  expenses  and 
do  not  include  payments  for  new  buildings,  grounds,  etc. 


13 


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What  the  Schools  Cost  for  One  Child  for  One  Year. 

The  amount  that  a  community  feels  that  it  can  afford  to  pay  for 
the  education  of  each  school  child  each  year  is  in  some  measure  an 
index  of  its  financial  resources  and  in  much' larger  measure  an  index 
of  its  estimate  of  the  value  of  education.  The  amounts  that  different 
cities  pay  vary  over  a  considerable  range.  In  comparing  these  amounts 
for  the  twelve  cities  entering  into  this  study,  the  total  sum  paid  for 
school  support  during  the  year  has  been  divided  by  the  number  of 
children  in  average  attendance  in  all  day  schools.  Average  attend- 
ance has  been  chosen  as  a  basis  for  these  per  capita  computations 
because  the  figures  expressing  it  are  much  more  exact  than  are  those 
for  enrollment.  Data  for  evening  schools  have  been  excluded  for 
greater  clearness  and  because  their  inclusion  would  have  but  slight 
effect  on  the  results. 

The  annual  per  capita  costs  of  the  schooling  of  the  children  in 
average  attendance  in  the  day  schools  of  the  twelve  cities  are  shown 
in  Table  II  and  in  graphic  form  in  Diagram  I. 

Table  II.    Annual  per  Capita  Cost  for  Children  in  Average  Attendance 
in  the  Day  Schools  of  Twelve  Cities. 

Spokane     $49.37 

Springfield    45.77 

Tacoma 44.20 

Salt   Lake   City    43.50 

Dayton 42.58 

Omaha    42.34 

Camden    41.15 

Grand  Rapids    40.54 

Cambridge    37.24 

Lynn    33.99 

New  Haven    31.74 

Bridgeport    26.81 


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Spokane  pays  almost  twice  as  much  per  child  per  year  as  Bridge- 
port. The  annual  per  capita  cost  for  the  average  of  the  other  eleven 
cities  excluding  Bridgeport,  is  $41,13.  If  Bridgeport  spent  as  much 
on  the  education  of  each  child  as  does  the  average  city,  she  would 
be  forced  to  increase  her  per  capita  expenditure  by  more  than  50 
per  cent.  The  added  cost  for  each  child  would  be  over  $14,  while 
the  added  expense  for  the  entire  city  would  amount  to  nearly  $200,000 
per  year.  This  added  expenditure  would  not  lift  Bridgeport  to  a  high 
rank  among  her  sister  cities  but  would  merely  carry  her  up  as  far 
as  the  average. 

The  Amount  and  Quality  of  Teaching  per  Child. 

In  general,  two  factors  largely  determine  the  amount  and  quality 
of  teaching  received  by  each  child  in  attendance.  These  are  first, 
the  size  of  class,  and  second,  the  salary  of  the  teacher.  In  many 
individual  instances  this  rule  does  not  hold,  but  in  the  long  run 
instruction  suffers  in  over-crowded  classes,  and  low  salaries  secure 
poor  teachers.  The  salaries  of  teachers  and  the  sizes  of  classes  should 
be  studied  in  relation  to  each  other  because  together  they  largely 
determine  the  value  of  the  results  secured.  Table  III  and  Diagram 
II  give  the  figures  for  the  12  cities. 

Table  HI.     Average  Annual  Salary  and  Average  Number  of  Pupils 
per  Teacher  in  Twelve  Cities. 

City/  Salary  Pupils 

Spokane    $1000  31 

Tacoma    958  33 

Dayton    801  31 

Grand  Rapids   800  30 

Cambridge    792  33 

Salt  Lake   City    777  30 

Springfield  754  27       . 

Omaha    744  30 

Lynn    723  32 

Camden    ..718  28 

New  Haven  690  34 

Bridgeport     ,.654  38 

The  figures  presented  by  the  table  and  diagram  show  that  in 
Spokane,  at  the  head  of  the  list,  the  average  salary  is  $1000,  while 
the  average  number  of  pupils  per  teacher  is  31.  This  means  that  if 
teaching  be  measured  in  terms  of  money  cost  the  average  child  gets 
$32  worth  of  teaching  during  the  year.  The  corresponding  figures  for 
Bridgeport,  at  the  foot  of  the  list,  show  that  the  average  child  re- 
ceived $17  worth  of  teaching  during  the  year,  or  little  more  than 
half  as  much  as  the  Spokane  child.  For  the  eleven  cities  besides 
Bridgeport,  the  average  teacher's  salary  is  $796  and  the  average 
number  of  pupils  31,  which  means  that  in  the'  average  city  each  pupil 

17 


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Per  Teacher  in  Twelve   Cities. 

receives  $26  worth  of  teaching  each  year.  As  has  been  pointed  out, 
such  comparisons  as  these  are  not  valid  in  individual  instances  but 
when  applied  to  large  groups  of  cases  they  throw  light  on  the  exist- 
ing conditions  in  a  truly  significant  way.  In  the  present  instance 
they  show  in  general  terms  that  Bridgeport  children  get  far  cheaper 
teaching  and  much  less  of  it  than  the  children  of  the  other  cities.  * 

The  Amount  Spent  for  Each  Child  for  Each  School  Purpose. 

The  foregoing  comparisons  have  shown  that  the  average  city 
spends  each  year  more  than  'half  as  much  again  as  does  Bridgeport 
for  the  education  of  each  child.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  Bridge- 
port expenditures  fall  below  those  of  the  average  city  in  just  the 
same  degree  for  each  of  the  12  main  purposes  for  which  the  funds 
are  spent.  For  some  of  these  the  Bridgeport  child  gets  far  less  than 
the  child  of  the  average  city,  while  for  others  the  disproportion  is  not 
so  great.  Just  how  much  each  city  spends  per  child  for  each  purpose 
is  shown  in  Table  IV. 

*Salary  of  teachers  in  elementary  schools,  Bridgeport: 

Grade.  Minimum.  Yearly  increment.  Maximum. 

I  $500                       $50  $800 

II  500                          50  750 

III  500                          50  750 

IV  500                         50  750 
V  550                         50  800 

VI  550  50  800 

VII  550  50  800 

VIII  850 

The  lowest  salary  paid  to  an  assistant  in  the  high  school  is  $750, 
and  the  highest  $1700. 

18 


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For  comparative  purposes  the  facts  presented  in  Table  IV  become 
much  clearer  when  they  are  gathered  together  so  as  to  show  the 
relation  between  per  capita  expenditures  for  each  purpose  in  the 
average  city  and  in  Bridgeport.  This  is  done  in  Table  V. 

Table  V.    Per  Capita  Expenditure  for  Each  Purpose  in  the  Average 


City    and   in   Bridgeport 


Purpose 


Average 
City 


Bridge- 
port 


Differ, 
ence 


Salaries   of   teachers    $25.88 

Salaries    and   expenses    of   principals    2.95 
Wages  of  janitors  &  other  employees    2.85 

Maintenance    2.28 

Fuel 1.46 

Stationery  and  supplies  1.39 

Board  of  Education  office 85 

Textbooks    85 

Salarils  and  expenses  of  supervisors       .73 

Water,  light  and  power 73 

Superintendent's  office   63 

Other  expenses   .53 


$17.07 

—$8.81 

2.51 

—    .44 

1.48 

—  1.37 

1.51 

—    .77 

1.33 

—    .13 

.42 

—    .97 

.30 

—    .55 

.50 

—    .35 

.52 

—    .21 

.55 

—    .18 

.33 

—    .30 

.29 

—    .24 

Total $41.13 


$26.81 


—$14.32 


The  facts  of  Table  V  are  presented  in  graphic  form  in  Diagram 
III.  The  circle  in  outline  represents  the  total  per  capita  expenditure 
in  the  average  city.  The  12  sectors  into  which  the  circle  is  divided 
are  proportional  in  area  <to  the  amounts  expended  for  each  of  the  12 
main  purposes  for  which  the  school  funds  are  spent.  The  portion 
of  the  surface  of  each  sector  that  is  shaded  represents  the  expendi- 
ture for  that  purpose  in  the  Bridgeport  schools.  The  diagram  clearly 
Bhows  that  in  some  respects  Bridgeport  expenditures  are  not  far  be- 
low the  standard,  while  in  others  they  are  notably  deficient. 

Most  striking  of  all  is  the  fact  that  in  every  one  of  the  twelve 
items  the  Bridgeport  expenditures  are  below  the  average  standard. 
Unless  the  Bridgeport  money  is  spent  far  more  efficiently  than  is  that 
of  other  cities,  this  means  that  the  Bridgeport  child  does  not  get  his 
fair  share  of  any  single  sort  of  educational  opportunity. 

How  Much  Bridgeport  Spends  for  Every  Dollar  That  the  Average  City 
Spends. 

In  the  long  run,  cities,  like  individuals,  purchase  about  what  they 
pay  for,  not  much  more  and  not  much  less.  Since  Bridgeport  spends 
far  less  than  the  average  city  of  her  size  for  every  purpose  of  educa- 
tional effort,  there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  she  is  not  only  paying 
less,  but  purchasing  less.  The  degree  of  these  discrepancies  between 


20 


r- 
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Diagram  III. — Surface  of  Circle  Represents  Total  Per  Capita  Ex- 
penditure in  the  Average  City.  Sectors  Are  Proportional  to  Amount 
Spent  for  Each  of  the  Twelve  Main  Purposes  for  Which  Funds  Are 
Expended.  Shaded  Portion  Represents  Expenditure  in  Bridgeport. 
Under  Each  Heading  the  First  Figure  Gives  in  Dollars  and  Cents  the 
Amount  Spent  Per  Child  Per  Year  in  the  Average  City  and  the 
Second  Figure  the  Corresponding  Amount  for  Bridgeport. 

21 


the  expenditures  of  Bridgeport  and  those  of  her  eleven  sister  cities 
may  be  better  realized  by  discovering  the  amount  she  spends  for  each 
purpose  for  every  dollar  spent  by  the  average  city  of  similar  size 
(or  the  same  purpose.  This  comparison  has  been  made  in  Table  VI 
and  Diagram  IV.  In  order  to  make  the  data  comparable,  they  have 
been  computed  on  the  basis  of  the  per  capita  expense  for  each  child 
in  average  attendance  in  the  day  schools. 

Table  VI..   Expenditure  for  Each  Purpose    by    Bridgeport    for    Eacli 
Dollar  Spent  by  the  Average  City  for  That  Purpose. 

For  each  dollar 

the  average    Bridgeport 

Purpose                                                              city  spends  spends 

Fuel     $1.00  $0.91 

Salaries  and  expenses  of  principals   1.00  .85 

Water,    light,    and    power    1.00  .75 

Salaries  and  expenses  of  supervisors   1.00  .71 

Salaries  of  teachers    1.00  .66 

Maintenance    1.00  .66 

Text  books    1.00  .69 

Superintendent's   office    1.00  .52 

Wages  of  janitors  and  other  employees  1.00  .52 

Stationery  and  supplies   1.00  .30 

Board  of   Education   office    1.00  .22 

All  other  purposes   1.00  .55 

The  facts  of  the  table  are  illustrated  in  Diagram  IV,  which  shows 
in  graphic  form  the  comparative  amounts  spent  for  each  purpose  by 
the  average  city  and  by  Bridgeport. 

The  Share  of  Each  Citizen  in  City  Support  and  School  Support 

The  comparisons  so  far  made  refer  to  the  per  capita  expenditures 
for  each  child  in  school.  Further  light  may  be  thrown  on  the  situa- 
tion by  computing  the  per  capita  expenditures  for  each  inhabitant 
of  the  city  not  only  for  school  support  but  for  all  municipal  purposes. 
These  data  are  available  from  the  report  of  the  United  States  Census 
for  1908  presenting  statistics  of  cities  for  that  year.  The  population 
figures  have  been  corrected  by  the  data  from  the  census  of  1910.  The 
comparison  reveals  the  conditions  presented  in  Table  VII  and  Dia- 
gram V. 


22 


» 

FOR    EVERY  DOLLAR  THAT 


_i*/  mm  7/cwrs 

OF  PK/HC/ PALS     ^B&/  Wg     00>  " 

S4  Z.  A  /?/£$  OFQUfiFfi  V/S0AS  4fc  £  /  ^L    //  , , 

^^  ^ 

o*-  r&ACH£-/te   wwMs /  ^L     ^6  •• 

^^     oo  " 

TEXTBOOKS  W*M£/  If?  " 


4     ««     " 

£*7C.  ^B^/  P         J^7         " 

^      £Z    •• 

ALL  OTHe*  />£//? X>^^S          ^fc-^/  •        sfj"       «• 

^^^  ^^ 

Diagram   IV. — Expenditure   For   Each   Purpose   By   Bridgeport   For 
Each  Dollar  Spent  By  the  Average  City  For  That  Purpose. 


23 


Table  Til.  Expenditures  per  Capita  of  Population  for 
poses  and  For  School  Support  Data  from 
Cities,  United  States  Census,  1908. 


Cities 

Springfield     .  . . 
Cambridge    ... 

Dayton    

Tacoma    

Salt  Lake  City 

Spokane    

New  Haven   . . . 

Lynn    

Omaha    

Grand  Rapids 
Bridgeport     . . . 
Camden    . 


Per  capita  expenditure 
for  all  city  purposes 

$16.69 

... 15.39 

13.61 

13.51 

13.27 

13.02 
12.92 


for 


12.76 
12.29 
12.21 
11.51 

11.18 


All  City  Pur- 
Statistics    of 

Per  capita 
expenditure 
public  schools 

$6.17 
4.93 
4.81 
5.11 
6.17 
5.73 
4.29 
3.85 
4.51 
5.03 
3.17 
4.65 


SPRINGFIELD 

CAMBRIDGE 

DAYTON 

TACOMA 

SALTLMECITY 

SPOKANE 

NEW  HAVEN 

LYNN 

OMAHA 

GAAND  RAPIDS 

UIIGEPOR7 

CAMDEN 

Diagram  V. — Each  Bar  Represents  Expenditure  Per  Inhabitant 
For  All  Municipal  Purposes  In  That  City  In  1908.  Black  Portion 
Represents  Expenditure  Per  Inhabitant  For  Public  Schools. 

The  results  show  that  Bridgeport  spends  less  per  citizen  for  its 
community  activities  than  does  any  other  of  the  cities  save  Camden. 
For  the  support  of  its  schools  it  spends  not  only  less  per  inhabitant 
than  does  any  other  city,  but  very  much  less. 

How  Each  Thousand  Dollars  is  Spent. 

The  figures  of  the  fundamental  table  show  how  much  money  is 
spent  for  each  purpose  in  each  city,  but  since  the  cities  differ  in 
size  they  are  not  directly  comparable.  In  order  to  find  out  not  how 
much  is  spent  in  each  locality,  but  how  it  is  spent,  a  computation  has 
been  made  to  reduce  all  the  data  to  a  single  basis  and  show  how 
each  city  spends  each  thousand  dollars.  The  results  are  presented 
fn  Table  VIII. 


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By  taking  the  average  of  the  figures  for  the  other  eleven  cities, 
we  may  derive  from  Table  VIII  a  statement  of  the  expenditures  in 
the  "average  city"  and  compare  it  with  the  data  lor  Bridgeport.  This 
simplifies  our  problem  and  enables  us  to  discover  how  Bridgeport 
compares  with  the  typical  or  average  city  of  similar  size.  The  results 
are  presented  in  Table  IX. 


Table  IX.     Expenditure  of  Each  Thousand  Dollars  for  School  Pur- 
poses in  the  Average  City  and  in  Bridgeport. 

Average 

Purpose 

city 

Bridgeport 

Difference 

Salaries  of  teachers 

$629  97 

$636.97 

+  $  7.00 

Salaries  and  expenses  of  principals  . 

70.82 

98.72 

+  22.90 

W^ages  of  janitors    etc 

69  97 

55.33 

—  14.64 

Maintenance    

55.20 

56.43 

+     1.23 

Fuel    

35.75 

49.43 

+  13.68 

Stationery     etc                            .  .       ... 

33.86 

15.53 

—  18.33 

Text    books                                .         .... 

20.94 

18.67 

—     2.27 

Board  of  Education   office       

20.41 

11.15 

—     9.26 

Salaries  and  expenses  o-f  supervisors. 

17.84 

19.36 

-|-     1.52 

Water    light    power    etc     

17.16 

20.69 

+     3.53 

Superintendent's    office    

15.22 

12.13 

—     3.09 

All  other  expenses    

12.86 

10.59 

—    2.27 

Total    '. $1000.00      $1000.00 


The  facts  of  Table  IX  are  presented  in  graphic  form  in  Diagram 
VI,  in  which  the  areas  of  the  triangles  are  proportional  to  the 
amounts  spent  for  the  different  purposes.  In  each  case  the  triangle 
in  outline  represents  the  amount  spent  by  the  average  city  while 
the  shaded  triangle  is  proportional  in  area  to  the  expenditure  in 
Bridgeport. 

The  results  of  this  comparison  presented  in  Table  IX  and  Dia- 
gram VI  show  that  of  each  thousand  dollars  expended,  Bridgeport 
spends  more  than  does  the  average  city  for  the  salaries  of  teachers, 
the  salaries  and  expenses  of  principals,  maintenance,  fuel,  salaries 
and  expenses  of  supervisors,  and  water,  light,  power,  etc.  She  de- 
votes a  smaller  proportion  of  each  thousand  dollars  than  does  the 
average  city  for  wages  of  janitors  and  other  employees,  stationery, 
text  books,  the  support  of  the  Board  of  Education  office,  the  support 
of  the  Superintendent's  office,  and  for  miscellaneous  expenses.  In 
considering  these  comparisons,  it  must  be  carefully  borne  in  mind 
that  the  figures  do  not  refer  to  the  gross  amounts  of  money  spent 
for  these  different  purposes,  but  only  to  the  way  in  which  each  thous- 
and dollars  spent  is  proportioned  among  the  different  school  pur- 
poses in  t!he  average  city  and  in  Bridgeport. 

26 


SALARIES  OF 
TEACHERS 


SALARIES  OF 

PRIMC/PALS 


$11 


WAGES  OF 


MAINTENANCE: 


FULL 


436 


9+9 


STATIONERY 


BOOKS 


BOARD  OF 

EDUCATION 

OFFICE 


WATER 

SALARIES  OF     LIGHT  & 
3C//°£fll/y30/?6        POWER 


SUPERIN- 
TENDENTS         ALL 
OFFICE  OTHER 


Diagram  VI. — Detailed  Analysis  of  Expenditure  of  Each  Thous- 
and Dollars  of  School  Funds  in  the  Average  City  and  in  Bridgeport. 
Triangles  in  Outline  Represent  Portion  of  Each  Thousand  Dollars 
Spent  For  Each  Purpose  in  the  Average  City;  Shaded  Triangles 
Represent  Expenditure  in  Bridgeport. 


27 


The  Educational  Bank  of  Bridgeport  Among  the  168  Towns  and  Cities 

of  Connecticut 

. 

The  State  Board  of  Education  of  Connecticut  publishes  compara- 
tive tables  giving  the  rank  of  the  168  towns  and  cities  of  the  State 
in  each  of  nine  educational  conditions.  The  first  seven  of  these  nine 
particulars  in  which  the  towns  and  cities  are  compared  refer  to  edu- 
cational resources  of  population,  money,  children,  and  teachers,  while 
the  last  two  refer  to  educational  expenditures.  The  first  seven,  which 
refer  to  resources  are  the  following: 

Population 

Valuation  of  property 

Educational  funds  received  from  the  State 

Children  enumerated 

Average  attendance 

Children  enrolled 

Teachers 

The  last  two,  which  refer  to  expenditures,  are: 

School  expenditure  per  child  enrolled 

School  expenditure  per  child  in  average  attendance. 

Diagram  VII  shows  the  comparative  rank  of  Bridgeport  among 
the  168  towns  and  cities  with  respect  to  these  nine  particulars.  In 
the  first  seven,  which  refer  to  resources,  her  rank  is  second,  third,  or 
fourth.  In  the  .last  two,  which  refer  to  expenditures,  her  rank  is 
153d  and  154th. 


Diagram  VII. — Rank  of  Bridgeport  Among  the  168  Towns  and  Cities 
of  Connecticut  in  Each  of  Nine  Educational  Comparisons. 


29 


IV.    DISTRIBUTION  OF  PUPILS  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 

Elimination. 

"The  general  tendency  of  American  cities  is  to  carry  all  of  their 
children  through  the  fifth  grade,  to  take  one-half  of  them  to  the 
eighth  grade  and  one  in  ten  through  the  high  school."  (Laggards  In 
Our  Schools,  Ayres,  p.  4.)  This  statement  was  made  in  1909  at  the 
close  of  the  most  comprehensive  study  of  retardation  that  has  yet 
been  undertaken.  In  discussing  the  condition  of  the  schools  of 
Bridgeport,  it  is  proper  to  note  how  closely  its  results  in  respect  to 
progress  and  survival  tally  with  this  general  tendency. 

Bridgeport  is  an  industrial  city  with  an  unusually  large  foreign- 
born  population  engaged  in  industries,  most  of  which  utilize  un- 
skilled labor.  It  might  be  expected  then  that  Bridgeport  would  fall 
somewhat  below  the  average  standard  in  the  high  school  and  per- 
haps also  in  the  upper  grammar  grades,  but  since  the  common  school 
course  is  conceived  of  as  representing  the  least  amount  of  schooling 
that  should  be  permitted  to  anyone,  we  ought  to  expect  even  a  city 
of  this  markedly  industrial  type  to  conform  in  the  lower  grades  to 
the  general  tendency. 

The  degree  of  conformity  to  this  general  tendency  exemplified  in 
the  Bridgeport  schools  will  be  discussed  in  connection  with  statis- 
tical tables,  the  data  for  which  were  furnished  by  the  School 
Department. 

We  shall  first  treat  year  by  year  the  membership  of  the  class  that 
constituted  the  first  grade  twelve  years  ago. 

TABLE  1. 

Class  Membership 

Elementary  and  High  School  Grades 
Bridgeport 

Per  cent  of 
Year  Grade  Pupils  Beginners  Beginners 

1902  I  3241  *1727  100 

1903  II  2022  117 

1904  III  1827  106 

1905  IV  1498  87 

1906  V  1127  65 

1907  VI  841  49 

1908  VII  529  31 

1909  VIII  460  27 

1910  H.  S.  1st  yr.  308  18 

1911  H.  S.  2d  yr.  249  14.4 

1912  H.  S.  3d  yr.  182  ,  10.5 

1913  H.  S.  4th  yr.  91  6.3 

*For  method  of  estimating  the  number  of  beginners,  see  page  31. 

30 


At  first  glance  this  table  would  seem  to  show  that  only  460  pupils 
out  of  3241,  or  14%  of  the  class  of  1902,  were  carried  to  the  eighth 
grade,  and  that  less  than  one-half  of  the  class  remained  in  school 
after  the  third  grade.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  number 
of  children  in  a  first  grade  is  never  the  number  of  beginners.  A 
first  grade  is  always  made  up  of  some  children  who  entered  this  year, 
plus  some  who  entered  a  year  ago,  plus  some  who  entered  two  years 
ago  or  even  earlier. 

The  records  do  not  show  how  many  children  entered  school  in 
1902  as  beginners,  but  their  number  may  be  estimated  from  the  num- 
ber of  beginners  in  1912-13,  which  the  records  do  show. 

Beginners,  1912-13,  Bridgeport: 

April,    1912    327 

Sept.,    1912     1894 

Feb.,    1913    287 

2508 

If,  on  the  basis  of  the  recorded  increase  in  population  in  ten 
years  (43.7%),  we  consider  2508  to  be  43.7%  greater  than  the  num- 
ber of  beginners  in  1902,  we  get  1640  as  the  number  of  beginners  in 
1902.  If  we  proceed  on  the  basis  of  the  increase  in  total  enrollment 
in  ten  years  (Municipal  Register  1912,  page  586)  or  39.4%,  we  get 
1814  as  the  number  of  beginners  in  1902.  Averaging  1640  and  1814, 
we  get  1727.  The  number  of  beginners  in  Bridgeport  in  1902  could 
not  have  been  far  from  1727.  Using  this  as  a  basal  number  repre- 
senting the  number  of  beginners  in  1902,  we  find  that  only  841  pupils, 
or  49%  of  the  class,  progressed  as  far  as  the  sixth  grade.  The  strik- 
ing feature  of  this  record  is  the  congestion  in  the  lower  grades  and 
the  rapid  elimination  of  pupils  as  we  approach  the  upper  grades. 
When  the  class  of  1902  reaches  the  eighth  grade,  it  numbers  460,  or 
only  27%  of  its  original  membership,  although  it  has  had  accessions 
in  grades  above  the  first  by  reason  of  the  rapidly  increasing  popu- 
lation. In  the  first  high  school  year  we  find  308  pupils,  most  of  whom, 
probably,  were  in  the  original  class  of  1902,  but  some  of  whom  were 
later  accessions.  Their  number  is  18%  of  the  original  class.  The 
fourth  year  high  school  class  has  retained  5.3%  of  the  membership 
with  which  the  original  class  started. 

Retardation. 

Pupils  who  have  taken  more  than  one-half  year  to  reach  grade 
I2,  more  than  one  year  to  reach  grade  II1  and  more  than  one  and 
one-half  years  to  reach  grade  II2  are  retarded.  No  school  system  is 
free  from  retardation.  The  amount  of  retardation  in  Bridgeport  must, 
however,  be  pronounced  excessive.  To  illustrate:  According  to  the 
Progress  and  Age  Study  blanks  returned  under  the  direction  of  the 
School  Department  for  September  of  the  present  scholastic  year, 
grades  I2,  II1  and  II2  were  made  up  of  children  who  had  attended 
school  as  follows: 

31 


Grades 

I2 

II1 

II2 

% 

year 

46 

3 

3 

1 

year 

303 

181 

19 

1% 

years 

344 

286 

53 

2 

years 

207 

385 

226 

2y2 

years 

98 

236 

145 

3 

years 

44 

179 

238 

3^ 

years 

22 

53 

79 

4 

years 

15 

61 

100 

More  than  4 

years 

16 

74 

81 

1095 


1448 


944 


Retardation  by  Age  and  Grade. 

The  amount  of  retardation  in  all  the  elementary  grades  is  shown 
in  another  way  by  the  "age  and  grade"  standard  in  the  following 
table  compiled  from  data  furnished  by  the  School  Department.  The 
standard  commonly  agreed  upon  rates  as  above  normal  age  all  chil- 
dren in  the  first  grade  who  are  eight  years  of  age  or  older,  those  in 
the  second  grade  who  are  nine  years  of  age  or  older,  and  so  on  for 
each  succeeding  grade. 


TABLE  2. 

Bridgeport 
Distribution  of  Pupils  by  Ages  and  Grades,  September,  1912. 

Ages                          I.       II.        III.        IV.      V.        VI.    VII.  Vlll.  Totals 
Under  5  yrs.  .  .       15          1                                                                         16 
5  years   noo          1                                                                      uni 

6  years   .... 

1376 

182 

6 

1 

1565 

7  years   

765 

661 

100 

3 

1529 

722 

374 

87 

7 

1 

1560 

369 

9  yenrs 

146 

488 

~  539 

270 

43 

9 

4 

1499 

10  years   

57 

218 

484 

454 

179 

46 

10 

3 

1451 

11  years  .... 

28 

99 

311 

434 

~  315 

140 

33 

10 

1370 

12  years   

24 

64 

195 

408 

244 

128 

53 

1482 

13  years 

18 

35 

105 

258 

326 

306 

257 

94 

1QQQ 

14  years   

8 

16 

38 

87 

126 

151 

164 

f/Tt 

132 

JLOt7i7 

722 

15  years 

5 

20 

18 

36 

51 

QQ 

74~ 

16  years      .  .  . 

1 

6 

8 

«/O 

22 

1    I 

Q1 

fiR 

17  years  . 

1 

2 

2 

OJ. 

\)O 

12 

18  years  

1 

J.4U 

Totals    ...... 

2911 

2488 

2172 

2'022 

1405 

958 

713 

404 

14073 

Above  normal  age  655 

921 

1153 

1207 

861 

"  518 

281 

112 

.&.1U  i  O 

5703 

Per  cent,  above 

normal  age 

16i, 

&     37 

53 

59} 

fc     61 

54 

39 

27 

40 

32 


Table  2  shows  the  ages  of  pupils  at  the  beginning  of  the  school 
year.  Figures  taken  in  September  will  show  a  lower  percentage  of 
retardation  than  will  similar  data  gathered  later  in  the  school  year. 
These  numbers  and  percentages,  therefore,  are  as  favorable  as  any 
that  the  school  records  could  yield. 

All  below  the  broken  line  in  the  table  are  above  normal  age  for 
the  grades  they  are  in.  The  number  of  over-age  pupils  in  each  grade 
is  shown  in  a  line  below  the  table  and  in  the  next  line  these  num- 
bers are  reduced  to  a  percentage  basis.  Out  of  a  total  of  14,073  pupils, 
5707,  or  40%,  of  the  whole  number  are  above  the  normal  age  for 
their  grades. 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  a  decided  falling  off  in  attendance 
after  the  fourth  grade.  In  fact,  the  greatest  loss  occurs  at  this  point. 
The  fourth  grade  loses  617  pupils,  while  the  fifth  loses  447,  the  sixth 
245  and  the  seventh  309.  (The  discrepancy  between  the  number  of 
children  in  first  and  second  grade  has  been  explained  in  connection 
with  Table  1.) 

Since  the  fifth  grade  is  30%  smaller  than  the  fourth,  it  is  evident 
that  in  Bridgeport  the  general  tendency  is  not  to  carry  all  the  chil- 
dren through  the  fifth  grade,  but  only  through  the  fourth  grade.  The 
records  of  the  State  Agent's  office  show  that  children  begin  to  drop 
out  of  school  in  the  third  grade.  From  September,  1911  to  December, 
1912,  working  certificates  were  given  to  49  children  in  the  third 
grade,  192  in  fourth  grade,  and  564  in  the  fifth  grade. 

In  Ayres'  study  of  retardation  In  31  cities,  24  cities  of  the  31  show 
a  lower  proportion  of  their  pupils  above  normal  age  for  their  grades 
than  Bridgeport.  Bridgeport's  rank,  if  included  in  this  table,  would 
be  25.  (Ayres,  Laggards  in  Our  Schools,  p.  45). 

For  purposes  of  comparison,  the  distribution  of  pupils  by  ages 
in  the  eight  grades  of  the  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  schools,  as  found 
in  the  annual  report  for  1911,  is  here  given.  The  two  separate  tables, 
one  representing  boys  and  the  other  girls,  have  here  been  combined 
in  one  table.  Grand  Rapids  has  been  chosen  for  comparison  because 
it  is  an  industrial  city  of  composite  population,  not  much  larger  than 
Bridgeport, — not  because  of  any  noteworthy  record  of  pupil  progress. 
In  fact,  its  rank  in  this  respect  in  the  Ayres  table  of  31  cities  would 
be  22,  only  three  points  above  Bridgeport;  but  its  pupils  are  better 
distributed  through  the  grades. 


33 


TABLE  3. 

Grand  Rapids,  Michigan. 
Distribution  of  Pupils  by  Ages  and  Grades,  September,  1910. 

Ages  I. 

5  years  43 

6  years  813 

7  years  800 

8  years  27? 

9  years  

10  years  

11  years  

12  years  

13  years  

14  years  

15  years  

16  years  

17  years  

18  years  

Totals    2014     1800  1699  1557  1501  1267  1161  99211991 

Above  normal  age  358       453  545  661  669  718  582  448     4464 
Per  cent,  above 

.normal  age           17.7      30  32  42  46  57  50  45        37 

Comparing  the  percentages  representing  the  children  who  are 
over-age  for  their  grades  in  the  two  cities,  we  have  the  following: 

Grade     I.       Tt.        III.        IV.      V.        VI.    VII.  Vlll.  Totals 

Bridgeport   16.5     37        53        59.5      61        54        39        27        40 

Grand  Rapids  . . .   17.7       30         32         42         46         57         50        45         37 

The  fact  that  strikes  one's  attention  here  is  the  higher  percentage 
of  over-age  children  in  Bridgeport  through  the  fifth  grade  and  the 
higher  percentage  in  Grand  Rapids  after  the  fifth  grade. 

The  explanation  is  obvious.  There  are  more  repeaters  in  Bridge- 
port than  in  Grand  Rapids,  and  there  is  also  greater  elimination. 
The  over-age  pupils  have  dropped  out  of  school. 

Grand  Rapids  :has  carried  pupils  to  the  eighth  grade,  45  %  of  whom 
are  above  the  standard  age  for  the  grade,  and  this  is  creditable.  In 
Grand  Rapids  28.5%  of  all  pupils  enrolled  in  the  elementary  schools 
are  in  grades  VI,  VII  and  VIII;  in  Bridgeport  14.7%.  In  Grand 
Rapids  31.6%  of  all  pupils  in  grades  I  to  V  are  retarded;  in  Bridge- 
port, 40%. 

Over-age  pupils  are  found  in  all  grades  in  all  school  systems. 
We  judge  the  standing  of  a  school  system  in  the  matter  of  progress 
and  survival  (1)  by  the  proportion  of  its  pupils  who  are  not  over- 
age in  the  grades  in  which  the  compulsory  attendance  laws  are  oper- 
ative, and  (2)  by  the  proportion  of  its  pupils  that  it  holds  in  school 

34 


after  the  law  allows  them  to  leave.  Thus  measured,  the  standing  of 
Grand  Rapids  is  by  no  means  high,  but  that  of  Bridgeport  must  be 
pronounced  decidedly  low.  To  meet  the  moderate  standard  set  by 
Grand  Rapids,  Bridgeport  should  have  4011  pupils  in  grades  VI  to 
VIII  (28.5%  of  14,073),  whereas  we  find  only  2075,  too  few  by  1936. 
By  the  Grand  Rapids  standard,  Bridgeport  should  have  only  3791 
over-age  pupils  in  grades  I  to  V  (31.6%  of  11,998),  whereas  it  has 
4797,  too  many  by  1006. 

Analysis  of  Fifth  Grade  Enrollment. 

The  "age  and  grade"  table  for  judging  retardation  needs  to  be 
supplemented  by  one  showing  the  time  in  school  as  well  as  age  and 
grade,  for  in  Tables  2  and  3  children  who  enter  late  and  have  made 
regular  progress  appear  as  retarded  along  with  those  who  have  been 
held  back  to  repeat  one  or  more  grades.  The  fifth  grade  has  been 
selected  for  analysis.  It  is  in  this  grade  that  retardation  culminates 
at  61%.  Two  tables  are  shown.  One  table  represents  the  pupils  in 
grade  V1,  the  other  those  in  grade  V2. 

Age  and  Time  in  School,  Grade  V1,  Bridgeport,  September,  1012. 

AGES. 


Years  in 

Sch'l     5      6 

789     10 

11 

12     13     14 

15     16 

17    18  Total 

1 

iy2 

1 

1 

2 

2% 

3 

236 

2 

1              1 

15 

3V2 

2       3 

5 

10 

4 

20     27 

17 

5 

69 

4% 

8     28 

28 

10              1 

1 

76 

5 

1     €8 

56 

40     12       1 

178 

6V2 

1     22 

33 

22       9       1 

88 

6 

2 

65 

57     27       3 

154 

6% 

25 

41     16      4 

1 

'     87 

7 

7 

53     37     15 

3 

115 

TV% 

14     22       7 

2 

45 

8 

1     28     13 

5 

47 

8% 

3       7 

10 

9 

3     10 

4 

17 

9% 

10 

1 

2 

3 

11 

Total 

2     35  156 

238 

244  159     63 

18 

915 

35 


This  table  shows  that  in  September  there  were  915  children  in 
t!he  V1  grade  in  Bridgeport.  By  referring  to  the  top  row  of  figures, 
it  will  be  seen  that  these  children  varied  in  age  from  8  to  15  years, 
and  reference  to  the  first  column  shows  that  they  had  been  in  school 
from  iy2  to  10  years.  According  to  the  commonly  accepted  standard, 
the  age  of  11  years  is  the  normal  age  for  children  of  the  fifth  grade; 
and  thus,  by  drawing  through  the  table  two  heavy  vertical  lines,  we 
divide  the  figures  into  three  groups,  leaving  on  the  left  all  the  children 
below  normal  age,  and  on  the  right  those  above  normal  age.  When 
the  figures  of  the  three  groups  are  added,  we  have  the  following  re- 
sults : 

Below   normal  age,    193 

Normal  age,   238 

Above  normal  age,    484 

In  a  similar  way,  divisions  into  progress  groups  are  made  by 
drawing  two  heavy  horizontal  lines  between  which  should  be  includ- 
ed children  who  have  been  in  school  four  years  and  have  just  begun 
the  fifth  grade,  thus  making  normal  progress.  But  to  err  on  the  side 
of  over  fairness,  we-  assume  4^  years  in  school  to  be  normal  for 
beginning  the  V1  grade  and  5  years  for  beginning  the  V2  grade,  thus 
allowing  ^  year  for  good  measure.  Those  remaining  above  the  lines 
have  made  rapid  progress,  while  those  below  have  made  slow  progress. 
Adding  the  figures  for  these  groups  we  have  the  following: 

Rapid   progress,    95 

Normal  progress, 76 

Slow  progress,  744 

We  have  noted  that  484  pupils  are  over-age  and  that  744  have 
made  slow  progress,  but  we  see  that  the  terms  "slow"  and  "over-a?e" 
will  not  invariably  refer  to  the  same  pupils.  Some  of  the  over-age 
pupils  are  not  slow  and  some  slow  pupils  are  not  over-age.  We  find 
94  pupils  who  are  young  but  slow,  and  8  who  are  over-age  but  rapid, 
and  other  combinations  between.  If  we  add  the  figures  in  eacb  di- 
vision we  liave  a  new  table  in  which  the  915  children  are  distributed 
by  age  and  progress  groups  as  follows: 

Young  Normal  Over-age  Total 

Rapid 63  24  8  95 

Normal  36  28  12  76 

Slow  94  186  464  744 

Total 193      238      484      915 


36 


Age  and  Time  in  School,  Grade  V2,  Bridgeport.    September.  1912. 

AGES. 


Years  in 

Sch'l     5       6       7       8       9     10 

11 

12     13     14 

15    16    17    18  Total 

Mi 

1 

3 

f 

2 

3^5 

3 

3 

4                                                3 

3 

?. 

7 

41/2                                      2       4 

2 

3       1       1 

13 

5                                        1     18 

34 

15      .1. 

69 

5^                                           13 

21 

22     16       1 

73 

6                                                3 

32 

34     23       3 

95 

6% 

10 

27     30      2 

1                            70 

7 

18     28       7 

1                            54 

7% 

17     20      6 

31                    47 

8 

4     16       8 

1                            29 

8^ 

6       7 

13 

9 

9 

9 

9% 

1 

2                              3 

10 

11                      2 

11 

11% 

12 

1                      1 

Total                           3     41 

~105 

143  141     45 

&  '  3                  490 

Treating  this  table  as  we  treated  the  table  for  grade  V1,  we  have 


the  following: 


Young 
Rapid    ...........        9 

Normal    .........      19 

Slow    .  16 


Normal  Over-age  Total 

28  -  8  25 

34  16  69 

63  317  396 


Total   44  105  341  490 

Combining  the  figures  for  grades  V1  and  V2  we  have  the  following: 
Age  and  Progress  Groups,  Fifth  Grade. 
Young       Normal      Over-age 


Rapid    72 

Normal    55 

Slow    .  110 


Normal 

32 

62 

249 


16 

28 

781 


Total 

120 

145 

1140 


Total 


237  343 

37 


825 


1405 


Reducing  the  numbers  in  the  above  table  to  a  percentage  basis, 
we   have   the  following: 


Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Young 

Normal 

Oyer-age 

Total 

Per  cent. 

rapid 

.5 

2 

1 

8 

Per  cent. 

normal 

.  ..    .          4 

4 

2 

10 

Per  cent. 

slow   . 

8 

18 

56 

82 

Total   17  2*  59  100 

This  is  not  a  good  showing.  It  cannot  be  expected,  of  course, 
that  all  children  in  a  grade  will  make  normal  progress,  but  there 
should  be  a  closer  correspondence  between  the  number  who  are  young 
and  have  made  rapid  progress  and  the  number  who  are  over-age  and 
have  made  slow  progress,  the  two  extremes  in  the  table.  These  num- 
bers are  72  and  781.  The  ratio  is  1  to  11. 

Comparison  with  31  Other  Cities. 

Some  of  the  causes  contributing  to  this  condition  will  be  pointed 
out  later.  At  this  point  it  is  desirable  to  show  by  comparison  that  the 
percentages  yielded  by  the  Bridgeport  table  are  unusual.  Many  more 
children  are  leaving  school  in  Bridgeport  without  receiving  a  toler- 
able minimum  of  education  than  in  29  cities  studied  by  the  Division 
of  Education  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  in  1911.  The  following 
table  shows  the  result  of  that  study  in  percentages  as  published  in 
the  American  School  Board  Journal  for  December,  1911. 

School  Children  .by  Young,  Normal,  and  Old,  and  oy  Rapid,  Normal, 
and  Slow  Groups. 

Average  Conditions  for  29  Cities. 

Per  cent     Per  cent      Per  cent 

Young       Normal      Over-age  Total 

Per  cent,   rapid    6                  3                  2  11 

Per  cent,   normal    21                21                10  52 

Per  cent,    slow    2                10                25  37 

Total    29  34  37  100 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  these  29  cities  the  percentage  represent- 
ing the  children  who  are  young  and  have  made  rapid  progress  is 
related  to  that  representing  those  who  are  old  for  the  grade  and 
have  made  slow  progress  as  1  to  4,  while  in  the  Bridgeport  table  the 
ratio  is  1  to  11.  In  the  table  for  the  29  cities,  it  will  be  noted  fur- 
ther that  there  is  better  balance  between  the  percentages  whether 
we  compare  them  horizontally  or  vertically.  For  instance,  the  per- 
centage of  those  old  for  the  grade  (37)  is  nearly  balanced  by  the  per- 
centage of  those  who  are  young  for  the  grade  (29).  In  the  Bridge- 
port table  the  corresponding  numbers  are  59  and  17. 

38 


It  is  clear  that  according  to  generally  accepted  standards  too  few 
children  in  the  elementary  grades  of  Bridgeport  are  making  rapid 
or  even  normal  progress,  and  that  far  too  many  are  making  such  slow 
progress  that  they  arrive  at  the  age  when  they  may  legally  receive 
the  working  certificate  before  they  have  reached  the  fifth  grade. 

Causes  of  Excessive  Retardation. 

Some  of  the  causes  of  this  unfavorable  condition  are  obvious: 

(1)  The  schoolrooms  are  overcrowded.     According  to  the  month- 
ly report  for  February,  50  or  more  pupils  are  in  attendance  in  each 
of  33  rooms,  and  from  45  to  49  in  each  of  150  rooms.    No  teacher  can 
do  justice  to  her  pupils  under  such  conditions.    The  maximum  number 
of  pupils  per  teacher  should  be   42.     The  best  work  cannot  be  done 
when    the    number    in    the    class    exceeds    35.      Thirty-two    additional 
classrooms  would  be  needed  to  reduce  the  present  attendance  to  42 
pupils  per  room,  not  counting  rooms  needed  for  special  classes  and 
industrial   work. 

(2)  There    are    no    special    classes    for    foreign    born    children, 
whose  chief  need  at  first  is  to  learn  the  English  language. 

(3)  There    are    no    special    classes    for    retarded    children,    and 
only  one  for  the  feeble-minded.     Scattered  through  the  lower  grades, 
a  few  in  each  room,  they  learn  little  and  they  impede  the  progress  of 
normal  children. 

(4)  Though  the  state  law  permits  school  boards  to  fix  a  school 
grade  which  the  pupils  must  pass  before  they  can  receive  the  working 
certificate,  no  such  action  has  been  taken  in  Bridgeport.     During  the 
fifteen  months   ending  last  December,   1356  children  in  grades   II   to 
VI,   all    of  the    retarded   class    and    over    fourteen  years   of   age,   left 
school  to  go  to  work. 

(5)  The  course   of  study   in   arithmetic   makes  heavier   demands 
upon  the  pupils  in  the  first  three  grades  than  is  now  customary  in 
most    school   systems.     Doing   so    much   in   arithmetic    in   the   lower 
grades   is  not  essential   to   securing   the   high   rank  in   fundamentals 
which  Bridgeport  has  attained  in  the  upper  grades. 

(6)  The  phonetic  method  by  which   all  beginners  are  taught  to 
read  fails  to  appeal  to  the  natural  interests  of  children  and  makes  too 
great  a  demand    upon    their    feeble  power  to  deal  with  abstractions. 
Children  make  muc'h  more   rapid   progress  in  learning  to  read,   and 
attain    no   less   independence   in    reading,   by    methods    which   involve 
less   sheer  drudgery.     This  method  as  used  makes   learning  to   read 
so  difficult  that  only  the  very  brightest  children  can  meet  the   first 
grade  requirement  in  a  year. 

(7)  The    requirement   in   formal    grammar   in    all    grades   below 
the  seventh  is  too  heavy.     Such  definitions  and  grammatical  forms  as 
are  called  for  in  grades  I  to  V,  inclusive,  have  little  or  no  value  as 

39 


training  in  the  use  of  language  in  speaking  and  writing.  Grade  VI 
is  the  first  in  which  formal  grammar  should  begin,  and  it  would  ba 
better  to  defer  it  till  the  seventh  grade  is  reached. 

(8)  It  is  questionable  whether  examinations  should  play  so  im- 
portant a  part  in  the  promotion  of  pupils  as  they  appear  to  do  in 
Bridgeport.  When  examinations  are  used  primarily  as  teaching  exer- 
cises, and  secondarily  as  a  check  upon  varying  judgments  of  teachers, 
they  need  not  be  retarding  influences.  Perhaps  all  principals  in 
Bridgeport  so  use  them,  but  unless  the  official  circulars  are  inter- 
preted more  liberally  than  their  language  warrants,  the  examination 
system  in  use  must  be  responsible  for  a  large  s'hare  of  the  retarda- 
tion which  is  so  conspicuous  in  the  schools. 

V.     PROPOSED  CHANGES  IN  ORGANIZATION. 

In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  enrollment  is  relatively 
small.  We  find  in  them  only  1117  pupils  out  of  a  total  of  14073  (see 
table  2,  p.  32).  In  several  schools  the  classes  in  these  grades  are 
so  small  that  for  the  sake  of  economy  they  must  occupy  the  same 
room.  Results  under  such  an  arrangement  must  be  unsatisfactory. 

Recommendations. 

Reorganize  the  elementary  grades  so  that  grades  I-VI  shall  con- 
stitute a  unit  and  grades  VII-VIII  a  unit.  In  the  two-year  unit 
formed  by  grades  VII-VIII,  provide  for  differentiation  of  work  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  needs  of  different  groups  of  pupils  and  particu- 
larly in  the  interest  of  pupils  destined  to  leave  school  at  the  end  of 
the  eighth  grade. 

Through  grades  VII  and  VIII  offer  four  distinct  lines  of  instruction: 
(1)  academic;  (2)  commercial;  (3)  industrial;  (4)  domestic.  And  in 
the  academic  course  provide  foreign  language  study  (Latin  and  Ger- 
man or  French),  this  particularly  for  pupils  destined  to  go  to  college. 

Have  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  instruction  conducted  on  a 
carefully  arranged  departmental  plan,  collecting  all  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grade  classes  into  certain  buildings  conveniently  located  about 
the  city;  but  in  any  one  such  center  not  all  four  of  the  differentiated 
courses  need  be  offered,  consideration  being  given  to  the  character  of 
the  neighborhood  in  selecting  the  courses  to  be  offered. 

Transfer  seventh  and  eighth  grade  classes  from  the  Clinton  Ave- 
nue School  to  the  building  now  used  as  the  High  School,  thus  giving 
added  facilities  to  the  City  Normal  School  in  the  Clinton  Avenue 
building.  Transfer  other  seventh  and  eighth  grade  classes  now  in 
the  smaller  outlying  schools  to  the  old  high  school  building  to  the 
limit  of  accommodations.  Distance  should  not  be  an  objection,  since 
the  .proposal  anticipates  the  inevitable  transfer  by  only  two  years 
and  offers  opportunities  greatly  superior  to  any  that  can  be  provided 
in  scattered  outlying  schools. 

Reorganize  the  four  high  school  grades  so  that  there  shall  be 
certain  coherently  planned  two-year  courses  alongside  the  four-year 
courses.  For  several  specific  recommendations  along  this  line,  see 
the  section  on  the  Program  of  Studies. 

40 


Grammar  Grade  Differentiation. 

Not  only  educational  principles,  but  also  certain  obvious  facts 
suggest  that  in  the  upper  grades  there  should  be  differentiation  of 
instruction  to  meet  the  varying  needs  of  different  groups  of  children. 
The  traditional  uniform  academic  course  (with  perhaps  some  little 
time  given  to  manual  training  or  domestic  science)  which  still  pre- 
vails in  many  cities  is  an  arrangement  good  enough  for  pupils  who 
are  to  have  a  long  period  of  schooling;  but  much  more  profitable 
courses  can  be  offered  for  pupils  whom  economic  impulse  will  force 
into  productive  work  at  a  comparatively  early  age.  The  latter  class 
of  pupils  are  now  leaving  school  at  various  points  from  the  fourth 
or  fifth  grade  on,  and  often  just  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  legal  limit 
of  compulsory  schooling.  They  quit  school  because  of  the  attraction 
of  wages,  it  is  true,  but  chieflly  because  they  have  natural  inclina- 
tions that  lead  away  from  the  bookish  interests  of  pupils  destined 
ultimately  to  enter  the  professions;  and  such  unliterary  pupils  would 
remain  in  school  longer  and  receive  more  adequate  training  for  good 
citizenship  and  efficient  social  service,  if  the  school  offered,  alongside 
the  academic  work,  parallel  courses  of  industrial,  commercial,  and 
domestic  instruction.  Into  the  latter  lines  of  activity  many  pupils 
will  eventually  go,  and  they  will  prove  much  more  reliable  and  con- 
tented employees  if  they  have  received  instruction  enlightening  them 
in  the  importance  and  dignity  of  callings  other  than  the  so-called 
professions,  and  if  they  have  been  given  an  introductory  training  pre- 
paring them  for  the  rapid  acquisition  of  skill  when  they  enter  par- 
ticular lines  of  business  or  definite  trades. 

The  foregoing  considerations  lead  to  the  recommendation  for  a 
differentiation  of  school  work  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade. 
Boys  and  girls  certain  to  go  into  the  high  school  (and  in  a  number 
of  cases  even  to  college)  would  continue  to  pursue  through  the  sev- 
enth and  eighth  grades  the  present  academic  studies  with  the  added 
privilege,  entirely  optional,  however,  of  beginning  a  foreign  language 
at  the  age,  twelve  to  fourteen  years,  when  the  drill  incident 'to  lan- 
guage acquisition  is  most  acceptably  undertaken.  Pupils,  on  the  other 
hand,  destined  to  begin  work  toward  -self-support  at  an  early  age, 
either  in  business  or  in  the  industrial  field,  would  find  in  the  pro- 
posed seventh  and  eighth  grade  industrial  courses  just  the  sort  of 
instruction  and  training  most  interesting  to  them  and  most  profitable 
for  the  future  life  work  to  which  they  are  to  devote  themselves.  More- 
over, the  industrial  instruction  and  practice  here  proposed  can  be 
developed  along  either  or  both  of  two  lines:  (1)  the  prevocational 
course  to  awaken  interest  in  industrial  pursuits  and  disclose  the 
natural  bent  of  the  pupil;  (2)  specific  trade  training  courses  for 
those  in  whose  cases  decision  has  been  made  for  this  or  that  leading 
trade  of  the  community.  And  finally,  the  proposed  domestic  course 
for  seventh  and  eighth  grade  classes  will  afford  to  many  girls  the 
only  opportunity  they  will  ever  have  for  systematic  instruction  to- 
ward becoming  in  the  future  the  efficient  home-makers  that  every 
community  so  sorely  needs. 

41 


Departmental  Instruction. 

Differentiation  of  instruction  in  the  upper  grades  naturally  sug- 
gests departmental  teaching,  because  no  single  teacher  can  be  ex- 
pected to  teach  the  whole  range  of  subjects  included  in  the  group  of 
parallel  differentiated  courses.  Departmental  teaching  is  the  plan 
common  in  high  schools,  where  several  teachers  co-operate  in  the 
instruction  of  a  group  of  classes  by  having  the  classes  pass  from 
teacher  to  teacher,  receiving  from  each  teacher  instruction  in  only 
a  single  subject  or  in  but  two  or  three  related  subjects.  This  plan 
of  teaching  is  to  be  recommended  for  grammar  grade  classes,  at  any 
rate  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  whether,  or  not  differentiated 
courses  are  offered.  It  is  true  that  departmental  teaching  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  has  dangers  (for  example,  the  overworking  of  pu- 
pils), that  must  be  guarded  against;  but  any  competent  principal 
with  intelligent  assistants  frequently  conferring  together  can  avoid 
the  possible  disadvantages  of  departmental  instruction  and  secure  all 
the  real  advantages  of  the  plan. 

Of  these  advantages  (frequently  set  forth  in  educational  litera- 
ture) the  following  may  be  here  enumerated:  better  teaching;  bet- 
ter equipment;  enriched  curriculum;  promotion  by  subject;  improved 
physical  conditions  for  pupils;  interest  and  stimulus  of  several  teach- 
ers instead  of  one  only;  college  graduates  in  grammar  grade  posi- 
tions; transition  to  high  school  attitude  and  methods. 

No  argument  is  needed  to  establish  the  fact  that  a  teacher  can 
become  more  expert  in  her  teaching  when  she  has  to  prepare  upon 
only  one  subject  or  a  few  related  subjects,  and  these  subjects  ai&o 
in  the  line  of  her  special  interests,  than  when  she  must  prepare  upon 
the  whole  round  of  subjects  now  taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  of  any  progressive  school  system.  Similarly,  it  is  a  great  ad- 
vantage to  the  pupil  to  be  taken  on  from  grade  to  grade  in  a  given 
subject  by  the  same  teacher,  an  expert  in  the  particular  subjec\ 
Again,  no  argument  is  needed  to  show  that  a  given  outlay  to  pur- 
chase equipment  for,  say,  geography  instruction,  will  go  much  farther 
when  applied  in  the  fitting  up  of  a  single  room,  the  geography  teach- 
er's room,  than  when  divided  up  among  several  rooms  to  give  eac1! 
of  several  teachers  a  share  of  the  equipment  for  her  geography  les- 
sons. Better  teaching  and  better  equipment  inevitably  bring  about 
an  enriched  curriculum;  for  each  of  the  teachers,  in  learning  more 
and  more  about  her  chosen  subject  and  in  accumulating  more  and 
more  equipment,  will  step  by  step  develop  the  more  important  phases 
of  'her  work  and  give  less  attention  to  or  even  discard  entirely  the 
less  important  phases;  and,  moreover,  every  study  in  the  course,  be- 
ing in  the  hands  of  a  sort  of  specialist,  will  receive  its  due  share  of 
time  and  attention,  and  will  be  taught  so  as  to  stir  interest  and  pro- 
duce truly  educative  effects.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a  pupil  has 
difficulty  with  any  subject,  the  departmental  plan,  in  affording  a 
medium  for  promotion  by  subject,  makes  it  an  easy  matter  to  advance 
this  pupil  in  everything  he  has  been  successful  with,  while  at  the 

42 


same  time  holding  him  back  for  review  upon  the  subject  only  in 
which  he  has  failed.  Pupils  also  enjoy  improved  physical  conditions 
under  the  departmental  plan  in  getting  the  relief,  activity,  and  va- 
riety afforded  by  moving  from  room  to  room  as  the  periods  of  the 
day  roll  by.  And  many  a  pupil  who  finds  school  irksome  and  mo- 
notonous, or  even  repellent  under  the  one-teacher  plan  (especially 
with  a  teacher  not  in  Group  A  of  the  superintendent's  efficiency  roll), 
will  develop  a  new  interest  and  pleasure  in  his  work  under  the  stim- 
ulus of  several  teachers  co-operating  in  departmental  organization. 

It  is  just  the  departmental  organization,  moreover,  that  will 
bring  into  the  grammar  grades  scholarly  and  enthusiastic  college 
graduates,  for  college  graduates  entering  the  school  service  have 
quite  as  lively  an  interest  in  seventh  and  eighth  grade  children  as  in 
high  school  pupils;  but  the  task  of  teaching  the  whole  work  of  a 
grade,  including  subjects  quite  outside  the  teacher's  special  inter- 
ests, is  not  attractive  to  one  Who  has  gone  to  college  for  the  express 
purpose  of  getting  superior  knowledge  and  training  in  the  two  or 
three  selected  subjects  that  the  candidate  wants  to  teach. 

Finally,  and  as  a  consequence  of  all  the  foregoing,  departmental 
instruction  in  grammar  grades  is  an  admirable  device  for  mediating 
the  transition  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  high  school,  be- 
cause under  this  plan  pupils  are  introduced  gradually  to  high  school 
methods  and  assume  quite  easily  the  high  school  attitude;  and  al- 
though this  consideration  may  be  said  to  apply  only  to  the  pupils 
who  go  on  to  the  high  schools,  it  is  nevertheless  an  important  factor 
both  (in  determining  how  many  will  thus  prolong  their  schooling  be- 
yond the  eighth  grade  and  also  in  unifying  the  whole  school  system 
of  a  city. 

Bridgeport,  it  is  believed,  would  experience  every  one  of  these 
educationally  beneficial  effects  from  the  introduction  and  judicious 
management  of  departmental  teaching  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades. 


VI.    THE  CITY  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

The  city  training  school  for  teachers  is  in  Public  School  build- 
ing No.  3,  located  on  Clinton  Avenue,  near  State  Street.  The  build- 
ing was  erected  in  1890.  In  this  building  and  in  a  portable  building 
In  the  rear  yard  is  an  elementary  school  of  fifteen  classes  of  all  grades 
through  the  eighth  year. 

The  normal  department  has  forty-nine  students,  twenty-one 
seniors  and  twenty-eight  juniors.  The  students  who  are  not  teach- 
ing in  the  elementary  school,  recite  and  study  in  one  room.  In  this 
room  are  the  text-books,  reference  books,  library  books,  and  practic- 
ally all  of  the  apparatus  and  illustrative  material  used  in  the  normal 
department. 

43 


Teaching  Force. 

The  teaching  force  consists  of  a  principal  and  five  critics  or  super- 
visors. 

The  principal  is  a  graduate  of  the  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  State  Nor- 
mal School,  has  studied  one  year  at  Radcliffe  College,  and  has  taken 
extension  courses  at  Clark  University,  Yale  University,  and  Colum- 
bia University.  She  was  a  teacher  and  principal  in  various  schools 
in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  for  fourteen  years;  assistant  super- 
intendent in  Worcester,  Mass.,  three  years,  and  has  been  principal 
of  the  Bridgeport  City  Normal  School  for  fourteen  years. 

One  of  the  critics  is  a  college  graduate.  This  one  and  three  others 
are  graduates  of  the  Bridgeport  High  School  and  had  taught  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Bridgeport  before  appointment  to  the  Normal 
School  faculty. 

The  other  critic  is  a  graduate  of  the  Lowrie  Kindergarten  Training 
Institute,  Jersey  City,  and  of  the  New  Paltz  (N.  Y.)  Normal  School. 
She  taught  in  schools  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  eleven  years, 
and  has  been  critic  in  the  Bridgeport  Normal  School  four  and  one- 
half  years. 

All  have  broadened  their  experience  by  taking  extension  work 
or  attending  one  or  more  University  Summer  sessions. 

The  assignment  of  work  to  the  teaching  force  is  as  follows:  The 
principal  supervises  the  work  of  the  entire  building,  attends  to  all  of 
its  administrative  features,  and  teaches  school  management  and  prin- 
ciples of  education  in  the  theory  department,  three  periods  per  week 
in  the  first  term,  four  periods  the  second  term,  and  three  periods  the 
third  term. 

The  critic  teachers,  "supervisors,"  both  give  the  theory  and  direct 
the  practice.  Also  each  critic  (except  one)  has  two  or  three  rooms 
in  charge  with  four  or  six  students  at  practice.  Here  there  is  too 
much  to  be  done;  the  conditions  render  adequate  supervision  of  each 
student's  practice  simply  impossible,  on  the  other  hand  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conduct  the  theory  instruction  in  the  best  way.  Consequently 
the  pupils  in  the  classrooms  are  not  being  properly  cared  for,  and 
the  normal  students  are  not  receiving  as  high  grade  training  as  the 
city  should  provide.  There  should  be  a  liberal  addition  to  the  teach- 
ing force  if  the  normal  faculty  are  to  be  responsible  both  for  normal 
instruction  and  for  the  progress  of  the  children  in  so  many  classes; 
or  the  building  should  be  allowed  additional  regular  teachers  for 
some  of  the  rooms  which  need  not  thereby  cease  to  be  practice  rooms 
for  part  of  each  day.  With  such  heavy  assignments  to  the  normal 
instructors  and  with  no  study  rooms  and  no  library,  the  teaching  is 
largely  by  teachers'  lectures  based  on  outline  notes.  Hence  much  of 
the  students'  theory  work  cannot  amount  to  more  than  note-taking 
practically  at  dictation  and  cramming  the  contents  of  the  note  books. 

44 


The  special  supervisors  of  music,  drawing,  writing,  and  physical 
training  in  the  city  schools  instruct  the  normal  students  one  period 
per  week. 

Entrance  Bequirements. 

Candidates  for  entrance  to  the  City  Normal  School  must  be  resi- 
dents of  Bridgeport  and  must  be  graduates  of  the  Bridgeport  High 
School,  or  must  have  completed  a  course  of  study  considered  equiva- 
lent, or  must  pass  a  satisfactory  examination. 

Graduates  of  the  Bridgeport  High  School  are  accepted  from 
either  the  English  or  College  Preparatory  Course.  The  courses  differ 
considerably.  The  English  Course  provides  a  review  of  grammar, 
geography  and  arithmetic,  two  periods  per  week  for  one  semester 
of  the  senior  year  for  those  planning  to  attend  the  City  Normal 
School.  A  definite  standard  of  scholarship  in  these  elementary  school 
subjects  is  not  insisted  upon  if  students  have  points  to  their  credit 
in  other  high  school  subjects. 

Several  students  have  been  graduated  from  the  high  school  and 
thereby  admitted  to  the  City  Normal  School,  although  they  did  nol 
do  satisfactory  work  in  their  review  of  the  elementary  school  sub- 
jects in  high  school.  The  College  Preparatory  course  does  not  offer  a  re- 
view of  the  elementary  school  subjects.  Of  those  at  present  in  attend- 
ance at  the  City  Normal  School,  two  junfors  and  four  seniors  are 
graduates  of  the  College  Preparatory  Course. 

Every  candidate  must  present  evidence  of  good  health,  and  nmst 
possess  good  moral  character.  The  physical  examination  is  not  defi- 
nitely outlined.  No  city  medical  examiner  is  employed.  The  family 
physician,  or  any  physician,  gives  such  an  examination  as  he  sees 
fit,  in  order  to  be  able  to  sign  the  following  certificate: 

"I  have  this  day  given  Miss a  medical  exam- 
ination and  find  her  in  good  health  with  no  tendencies  toward  weak- 
ness or  disease  that  should  Interfere  with  her  pursuit  of  the  Course 
of  Study  and  Practice  in  the  City  Normal  School  for  teachers  or  of 
the  vocation  of  teaching. 

" M.   D." 

No  further  physical  examination  is  given  before  appointment  to 
the  teaching  force. 

There  is  no  prescribed  limit  to  the  number  of  candidates  admitted. 


45 


Course  of  Study. 

Juniors — 

1st  Term — 14  weeks — Theory 
2nd  Term — 14  weeks — Theory 
14  weeks — Practice 
3rd  Term —  9  weeks — Theory 

Seniors — 

1st  Term — 14  weeks — Practice 
2nd  Term — 14  weeks— Practice 

14  weeks — Theory 
3rd  Term —  9  weeks — Practice 

Division  of  Theory  Work. 

Junior  Year 

1st  Term    Principles   of  Education 

Methods  of  Recitation, 

School  Mechanics, 
14  wks.        Phonics, 

Nature  Study, 

Arithmetic, 

Geography, 

Music, 

Drawing, 

Writing, 

Pihysical  Training, 


(A.  M.) 

2nd  Term  Principles   of  Education, 

Methods  of  Recitation, 

Psychology, 
14  wks.       Reading, 

Arithmetic, 

English, 

Music, 

Drawing, 

Writing, 

Physical  Training, 


all  day 
A.  M. 
P.  M. 
all  day 

all 
A. 
P. 
all 

day 
M.- 
M. 
day 

Forty 
minute 
periods 

Hour 
periods 

i, 

Equivalent    55 

38 

40 

27 

20 

13 

70 

47 

50 

33 

70 

47' 

70 

47 

20 

13 

20 

13 

20 

13 

20 

13 

455 

304 

i, 

35 

23 

20 

13 

20 

13 

40 

27 

20 

13 

40 

27 

20 

13 

20 

13 

20 

13 

20 

13 

255 


168 


46 


Forty 

minute 

Hour 

Senior   Year  — 

periods 

periods 

3rd  Term    General    Methoos,                      Equivalent     35 

23 

9  wks.         Psychology,                                     " 

50 

33 

Manual  Training, 

50 

33 

English,                                             " 

50 

33 

Geography, 

50 

33 

MusiJ, 

12 

8 

Drawing,                                          " 

12 

8 

Writing, 

12 

8 

Physical    Training, 

12 

8 

283 

187 

2nd  Term  (P.  M.)     School   Management 

55 

37 

14  wks.                       History  of  Education 

45 

30 

History 

45 

30 

Music 

10 

7 

Drawing 

lit 

7 

Writing 

10 

7 

Physical   Training 

10 

7 

185 

125 

For  the  Course. 

English,  including  phonics,  reading,  oral  and 

written 

composition 

200 

133 

Geography 

120 

80 

Arithmetic                            ... 

90 

60 

Principles  of  Teaching 

90 

60 

General  Method                  ... 

95 

63 

History  of  Education 

45 

30 

Psychology                          - 

70 

47 

Nature  Study 

50 

33 

Music  - 

62 

51 

Drawing                - 

62 

51 

Writing 

62 

51 

Physical  Training 

62 

51 

The  text-books  with  which  each  student  is  provided,  are: 

McMurry's  General   Method 

McMurry's  Method  of  Recitation 

Tichener's  Psychology 

James'  Psychology 

Monroe's   History   of  Education 

Kemp's  History  of  Education 

Mace's   History   Methods 

Tarr  and  McMurry's  Geography 

47 


The  Junior  Program  for  the  first  term  of  the  present  school  year: 

Mon.  Tues.  Wed.  Thurs.  Fri. 

9:00 —  9:15  Nat.  Study        Morning  exercises. 

9:15 —  9:55  Nat.  Study  Geo.  Nat.  Study     Geog.  Nat.    Study 

10 : 0'O — 10 : 55  Education  Drawing     Education    Math,  Rec.  Education 

11:00— 11:55  Music        Nat.  Study    Writing        Nat.  Study  Phy.  Ed. 

1:30—  2:25  Geog.         Arith.  Arith.  Arith.  Arith. 

2:30 —  3:25  Math.  Rec.  Phonics      Phonics         Phonics        Phonics 

The  program  is  changed  each  month  to  enable  the  critics  and 
supervisors  to  supervise  at  different  hours  of  the  day  and  the  sub- 
jects in  the  grade  classes. 

Observation. 

The  opportunities  afforded  the  students  to  observe  model  work 
are  very  limited.  During  the  junior  year  the  students  have  occa- 
sional opportunities  to  observe  groups  of  children  in  the  normal  room 
taught  by  a  critic,  classes  in  the  elementary  school  taught  by  a  critic 
or  senior,  and  groups  or  classes  taught  by  a  junior. 

During  the  senior  year,  they  may  observe  occasionally  classes 
taught  by  a  critic  or  special  teacher,  or  of  a  senior  in  charge. 

Practice  Teachiag. 

Twelve  of  the  fifteen  elementary  school  classes  in  the  building, 
grades  I  to  V,  are  taught  by  students  of  the  City  Normal  .School.  The 
highest  grades  in  the  building  are  entirely  apart  from  the  Normal 
Department,  the  students  having  nothing  to  do  with  these  classes, 
either  in  observation  or  practice.  The  seniors  teach  all  day  during 
the  first  and  third  terms.  During  the  second  term  the  seniors  teach 
in  the  morning,  and  the  juniors  in  the  afternoon. 

The  critics  supervise  the  work  as  before  indicated,  and  teach  a 
lesson  occasionally. 

As  a  preparation  for  teaching,  the  juniors  are  given  some  pre- 
liminary instruction  during  the  first  week  of  the  second  term.  For 
three  days  they  are  instructed  in  groups  by  the  critic  teachers  in  the 
mechanics  of  the  class  work  and  schoolroom  management,  they  are 
given  lessons  on  the  principles  of  education  peculiarly  applicable  to 
classroom  instruction,  and  they  are  allowed  to  observe  the  work  of 
seniors  and  critics  in  teaching  the  classes  to  which  they  have  been 


The  daily  programs  and  weekly  outlines  are  carefully  examined 
in  advance  by  the  critics.  If  there  are  two  pupil  teachers  assigned 
to  one  room,  each  teaches  her  own  group  in  reading,  arithmetic,  and 
geography,  and  alternates  with  the  other  pupil  teacher  in  teaching 
the  whole  class  in  the  other  subjects. 

Throughout  the  day,  as  time  permits,  the  principal  and  critics 
observe  the  work  of  pupil  teachers,  take  notes,  suggest  and  criticise. 

48 


At  the  close  of  the  day,  each  Monday,  the  principal  meets  the  critics 
for  suggestion  and  reports,  and  on  Tuesday  each  critic  meets  the 
pupil-teachers  assigned  to  'her  and  offers  general  suggestions,  crit- 
icisms, and  plans  of  work.  One  hour  each  week,  usually  Friday  at 
3:30  P.  M.,  is  reserved  for  individual  criticism. 

The  pupil-teachers  have  teaching  experience  during  the  course 
in  three  grades  and  under  three  critics — the  first  assignment  aa 
juniors,  the  second  as  seniors  from  September  till  April,  and  third  for 
the  balance  of  the  school  year. 

For  this  teaching  service  the  seniors  receive  $2000  appropriated 
by  the  city, — from  $75  to  $100  each.  The  seniors  are  called  upon  to 
do  considerable  substitute  service  In  the  occasional  absence  of  regu- 
lar teachers.  The  seniors  detailed  to  such  service  are  those  that  can 
best  be  spared  from  class  instruction  in  the  school. 

In  order  to  retain  their  membership  and  be  graduated,  the  students 
have  been  required  to  maintain  an  average  of  70%,  but  during  the 
last  year  the  passing  mark  'has  been  raised  to  80%.  This  raising  of 
the  standard  has  tended  to  eliminate  several  from  the  school.  Of 
the  class  of  1913, — the  class  that  entered  in  September,  1911, — nine 
have  already  dropped  out  by  the  advice  of  the  teachers  or  because  of 
actual  failure  to  do  satisfactory  work. 

The  graduates  of  the  Oity  Normal  School  are  appointed  to  posi- 
tions in  the  city  schools  in  the  order  of  their  standing  at  the  close 
of  their  course.  In  this  way  all  graduates  'have  been  able  to  secure 
positions  in  the  Bridgeport  schools  within  a  year  after  graduation. 

Until  within  two  or  three  years,  the  City  Normal  School  sup- 
plied nearly  all  the  teachers  needed  in  the  elementary  schools,  but 
during  the  past  two  or  three  years,  from  five  to  ten  teachers  have 
been  secured  from  outside  the  city  limits. 

Comments. 

Visits  to  the  school,  conferences  with  the  principal  and  critics, 
observation  of  the  work  by  teachers  and  students,  lead  one  to  value 
highly  the  spirit  and  efforts  of  all.  The  principal  and  critics  have 
full  notes  and  outlines  of  each  subject.  Some  of  the  books  used  as 
authority  on  special  topics,  however,  are  by  no  means  up  to  date. 

The  work  is  well  organized  and  is  carried  out  as  well  as  could 
be  expected  under  existing  conditions.  The  students  are  mature,  in- 
terested, alert,  striving  hard  to  make  the  most  of  their  opportunities. 

Owing,  in  a  measure,  to  the  lack  of  proper  sc'hool  accommoda- 
tions, the  instruction  is  to  a  very  considerable  extent  embodied  fn 
the  dictation  of  notes,  outlines,  and  definitions.  There  is  lacking  such 
a  course  in  English  as  the  pupil-teachers  need  for  their  professional 

49 


equipment.  The  students  of  each  class  recite  in  a  single  division 
practically  all  day.  There  is  little  opportunity  for  research  and  study 
at  the  school  building. 

The  Normal  School  has  no  responsibility  for  its  graduates  even 
during  the  first  few  critical  months  of  their  experience  as  teachers. 
During  this  time  they  need  expert  help,  either  from  the  Normal  School 
or  from  the  office  of  supervision. 

Defects. 

1.  The  building  as  now  used  is  wholly  unsuited  to  the  purposes 
of  a  training  school  for  teachers.  It  was  built  more  than  twenty 
years  ago.  Classes  of  the  elementary  grades  occupy  all  of  the  rooms 
except  the  one  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  normal  students.  The 
ground  floor  hallway  is  dark;  the  top  floor  is  a  large  assembly  hall, 
but  little  used.  The  building  has: 

(a)  No  room  for  a  kindergarten.     There  is  a  serious  omission. 
The  kindergarten  is  now  an  integral  part  of  our  public  school  sys- 
tem, and  city  training  schools  should  afford  an  opportunity  to  study 
at  first-hand  a  well-managed  kindergarten.     Through  it  the  teachers, 
especially  those  placed  in  charge  of  the  lower  grades,  may  become 
thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  kindergarten. 

(b)  No  room  for  classes  of  drawing.    Drawing  can  be  taught  to 
advantage  only  when  a  suitable  room   and  equipment  are  provided. 
The  present  class  room  is  unsuited  to  the  purpose  as  regards  tables, 
desks,  seats,  and  light. 

(c)  No  room  for  the  library  and  study.    The  text  and  reference 
books,  some  1400,  are  in  cases  under  the  windows  where  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  read  the  titles,  to  make  a  selection,  and  to  use  them  to  ad- 
vantage.   A  larger  and  more  modern  collection  of  reference  books  is 
very  much  needed,  and  a  room  should  be  set  aside,  furnished  with 
chairs,    tables,    and    bookcases,    where    the    books   can    be    consulted 
readily. 

(d)  No  science  room.    In  this  room  there  should  be  a  modern 
equipment   for    the    proper   teaching   of   elementary    science,    nature 
study,  and  geography, — tables,  movable  chairs,  demonstration  tables 
with  gas,  electricity,  and  running  water;   maps,  charts,  globes,  lan- 
tern and  slides,  display  and  storage  cabinets,  aquaria,  and  various  col- 
lections for  illustrative  purposes. 

(e)  No  manual  training  room.     In  this  room  there  should  be 
accommodations  for  instruction  in  raffia,  cardboard,  elementary  wood- 
work, and  sewing.    And  for  the  boys  and  girls  in  higher  elementary 
grades,  accommodations  should  be   provided  for  instruction  in  shop 
work  and  cooking. 

(f)  No  gymnasium.    Physical  training  has  assumed  a  large  place 
of  late  in  a  well-organized  system  of  schools.     The  instruction  in 
this  line  in  the  Bridgeport  Normal  School,  from  necessity,  is  mostly 
dictation  and  note-taking.    It  should  be  largely  practical  demonstra- 

50 


tions  in  a  gymnasium.  In  this  work  most  clearly  we  learn  to  do  by 
doing;  we  can  teach  well  only  when  we  can  demonstrate  the  move- 
ments and  exercises  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  This  training  would 
develop  in  'the  students,  in  a  marked  way,  grace  and  strength,  and 
should  improve  their  health  very  perceptibly. 

(g)  No  playroom.  Ample  accommodations  should  be  provided 
for  play  activities.  Such  a  room  could  be  used  by  the  pupils  of  the 
practice  school,  and  by  the  students  of  the  Normal  School  in  learn- 
ing to  direct  organized  play. 

2.  There  is  little  opportunity  for  the  observation  of  model  work. 

Teachers  in  training  should  have  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  regu- 
lar grade  work  of  superior  teachers.  Observation  of  teaching  exer- 
cises conducted  by  other  students,  or  specially  prepared  lessons  witli 
groups  of  children  conducted  by  one  of  the  critics,  do  not  sufficiently 
serve  the  purpose.  A  model  school  connected  with  a  normal  school 
should  afford  the  coming  teachers  an  opportunity  to  observe  first- 
class  work  carried  on  connectedly  day  by  day, — work  that  brings  re- 
sults and  is  worthy  of  emulation. 

3.  There  is  no  opportunity  to  observe  the  management  and  activi- 
ties of  a  special  class  for  exceptional  children — retarded,  mental  de- 
fectives, voice  defectives,  crippled  or  anemic.    At  least  one  or  two  of 
these  classes  should  be  in  the  training  school  building  or  in  some 
nearby  building,  so  that  the  coming  teachers  may  be  led  into  a  sym- 
pathetic  acquaintance  with   exceptional  cases  and  the  best  methods 
to  pursue  in  their  education  and  training. 

4.  The  practice  teaching  can  be  better  organized.    By  the  pres- 
ent plan  the  juniors  are  placed  in  charge  of  elementary  classes,  under 
the  supervision  of  critics,  for  the  afternoons  of  the  second  term.    This 
assignment  is  made  before  the  students  are  at  all  well  prepared  for 
teaching.     And  the  teaching  experience  in  the  school  cannot  afford 
an  adequate  test  of  the  pupfl-teacher's  ability  to  teach  or  to  disci- 
pline. 

5.  A  very  limited  supply  of  apparatus  and  illustrative  material 
is  provided.    In  a  training  school  for  teachers  there  should  be  a  com- 
plete equipment  of  illustrative  material  in  order  that  coming  teach- 
ers may  know  and  appreciate  what  lielps  are  available  in  a  well- 
organized  school. 

One  reason  for  the  scarcity  of  these  helps  is  no  doubt  the  limited 
storage  conveniences  and  the  lack  of  a  room  for  their  display  and  use. 

6.  The  entrance  requirements  are  too  easy.     Mere   graduation 
from  a  high  school  is  not  sufficient.     There  should  be  a  thorough 
written   examination   on   the   principal   subjects   of  the   high    school 
course  and  on  the  departmental  subjects  of  the  elementary  school 
course.     A  high  standard  of  scholarship  should  be  insisted  upon  as 
a  prerequisite  of  entrance,  even  if  an  examination  eliminates  one- 

51 


third  or  more  of  the  candidates.  Such  an  examination  would  react 
upon  the  high  school  and  lead  to  more  accurate  scholarship  in  that 
school. 

And  a  thorough  physical  examination  of  each  candidate  should 
be  made  by  a  city  physician  employed  for  the  purpose.  The  heart, 
lungs,  blood,  urine,  hearing,  and  sight,  should  receive  close  attention 
by  a  competent  medical  expert. 

Recommendations. 

1.  Provide   suitable  accommodations   for  a  city  training   school 
for  teachers,  either  by  making  the  necessary  changes  in  the  present 
building  on  Clinton  Avenue  and  providing  for  it  a  proper  equipment. 
or  by  devoting  to  this  purpose  one  of  the  new  buildings  soon  to  be 
erected. 

In  case  it  is  deemed  best  for  the  training  school  for   teachers 
•  to  remain  where  it  is, 

Vacate  four  rooms  on  the  third  floor  and  transfer  the  higher 
grade  pupils  of  the  elementary  school  to  neighboring  schools;  equip 
the  rooms  thus  vacated,  one  as  a  gymnasium,  one  as  a  library,  one  as 
a  science  room  for  classes  in  nature  study,  elementary  science,  and 
geography,  and  one  as  a  room  for  classes  in  drawing.  Use  the  re- 
maining rooms  in  the  building  for  classes  of  pupils  in  grades  below 
the  sixth  year.  Use  the  portable  building  in  the  rear  for  a  kinder- 
garten class. 

2.  Make  the  present  practice  school  a  model  school  and  place  the 
best  teachers  available  in  charge  of  the  classes.    They  should  be  paid 
a  higher  salary  than  is  paid  teachers  in  other  schools  because  of  the 
greater  responsibility  of  the  position.    This  school  should  be  used  as 
a  sc'hool  for  observation.     In  this  way  a  series    of    systematic    ob- 
servation lessons  may  be  planned  for  the  juniors,  two  'hours  per  week, 
a  portion  of  which  time  might  properly  be  used  in  assisting  the  class 
teachers  by  instructing  groups  of  pupils  and  by  coaching  slow  and 
backward  pupils. 

A  first  class  model  school  is  a  good  school  for  teachers  in  the 
grades  to  visit  occasionally. 

3.  Arrange  with  four  or  five  neighboring  schools  for  opportuni- 
ties for  practice-teaching,  three  seniors  and  a  critic  to  be  assigned 
to  three  classes  in  each  of  the  several  school  buildings.     By  this  ar- 
rangement, there  will  be  a  saving  in  the  salaries  of  fifteen  or  eighteen 
teachers,  which  will  much  more  than  offset  the  extra  expense  of  em- 
ploying skilled  teachers  in  the  model  school.    In  this  way  the  teach- 
ing experience  of  the  pupiMeachers  can  be  made  much  more  valu- 
able.    If  they  are  shifted  from  one  school  to  another  at  the  close 
of  the  first  term,  they  will  gain  experience  under  normal  conditions  • 
they  will  be  supervised  by  at  least  two  critics,  and  the  critic  teach- 
ers will  see  that  the  children  suffer  no  loss  by  these  changes. 

52 


4.  Insist  upon  a  high  standard  for  entrance  to  the  City  Normal 
School,  and  limit  the  number  of  admissions  to  fifteen  or  eighteen  to 
each  class.  Add  to  the  faculty  a  college  graduate  who  has  specialized 
in  the  teaching  of  English.  By  raising  the  standard 
of  scholarship,  and  by  limiting  the  number  of 
admissions  each  year,  a  better  trained  product  will 
toe  available  for  service  in  the  teaching  ranks.  Any  attempt  to  train 
in  the  City  Normal  School  all  of  the  teachers  needed  from  year  to 
year  is  a  great  mistake.  There  can  be  no  greater  misfortune  to  any 
school  system  than  to  have  a  steady  inbreeding  of  home  talent.  The 
Board  of  Education  should  insist  upon  the  selection  of  at  least  one- 
third  of  the  new  teachers  each  year  from  outside  the  city  limits,  or 
from  other  training  schools  than  the  Bridgeport  City  Normal  School. 
New  blood,  new  ideas,  different  courses  of  training,  will  bring  new 
life  and  enthusiasm  into  the  entire  teaching  body. 

It  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that  the  schools  exist  solely 
for  the  children.  Whether  the  teachers  live  in  Bridgeport  or  Nova 
Scotia,  whether  they  were  trained  at  home  or  away,  whether  their 
fathers  pay  taxes  or  not,  is  of  no  consequence.  The  children  deserve 
the  best  teachers  that  it  is  possible  to  secure  for  the  money  available. 


TIL    THE  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

The  present  high  school  building  is  now  quite  inadequate  to 
house  the  school  properly,  and  unequipped  for  proper  instruction  in 
the  present  courses  of  study  and  unadapted  for  the  introduction  of  the 
needed  new  work.  As  this  is  fully  acknowledged,  the  defects  in  the 
building  itself  need  not  be  stated. 

Many  of  the  obvious  weaknesses  of  the  school  on  the  educational 
side  are  direct  consequences  of  the  unhappy^  physical  conditions  under 
which  the  work  is  being  conducted. 

Equipment 

The  equipment  is  absolutely  inadequate  even  for  the  work  now 
undertaken.  There  is  need  of  equipment  in  science,  in  the  commercial 
department  and  in  history.  There  is  need  of  library,  shops  and  gym- 
nasium. There  is  need  of  improved  and  additional  textbooks. 

A  striking  handicap  upon  a  very  important  class  of  pupils  occurs 
in  the  case  of  the  group  of  normal  preparatory  girls  taking  physics. 
In  the  absence  of  proper  room  and  adequate  equipment,  the  instruc- 
tor faces  the  alternative  of  giving  laboratory  work  to  the  normal  pre- 
paratory class  or  to  the  college  preparatory  class;  and  he  has  not 
unnaturally  chosen  to  give  the  advantage  to  the  pupils  bound  for 
college. 

The  limitations  of  the  present  buildings  preclude  to  a  consider- 
able extent  the  installation  and  effective  use  of  such  equipment  as 
the  school  should  have. 

53 


The  Program  of  Studies — Recommendations. 

1.  Develop  the  present  commercial  course  into  a  coherent  four- 
year  course,  instead  of  the  present  three-year  course  with  an  extra 
"optional"  year  (on  paper)   that  no  pupil  takes  because  it  is  not  se- 
riously offered. 

2.  Arrange  the  first  two  years  of  this  course,  or  construct  a  more 
or  less  independent  two-year  course,  so  as  to  offer  alongside  the  full 
commercial  course  a  short  clerkship  course  of  two  years'  training. 

3.  The    subjects    placed   in   the   third   and   fourth   years    of   the 
school    program    as    reviews    of   college    preparatory    work    (algebra, 
geometry,  ancient  history)   amount  to  mere  coaching  classes  for  the 
college  entrance  examinations,  and,  if  retained,  should  be  taken  only 
by  pupils  actually  going  to  college,  so  that  others  could  apply  this 
time  more  profitably. 

4.  Discontinue    Greek.      It    is    not    required    for    college    prep- 
aration and  is   being  taken  by   extremely  few   pupils.     Its   retention 
in  the  course  involves  an  extravagant  use  of  teacher  time  an  view 
of  the  greater  needs  of  the  school. 

5.  Arrange  the  first  two  years  of  the  Latin  work  of  the  sc'hool 
so  as  to  form  a  rounded  two-year  course  in  Latin   (including  an  at- 
tractive   and   varied    second    year    assignment   in    place   of   the    four 
books  of  Caesar's  Gallic  War)    for  the  advantage  of  pupils  not  going 
to  college  but  wishing  the  benefit  of  the  two  years  of  Latin. 

(The  following  recommendations  relating  to  industrial  courses 
are  intended  to  apply  a  year  hence,  or  whenever  the  new  building, 
now  assured,  shall  be  ready  for  occupancy.) 

The  present  "industrial"  and  "domestic  art"  courses  are  in  need  of 
development,  hence: 

6.  Construct   a   full    four-year   industrial   course    related   to  the 
major  industries  of   the   city.     Arrange   the  first   two  years   of  this 
course  so  as  to  offer  a  short  industrial  course  for  boys  of  fourteen 
to  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  particularly  in  the  interest  of  those  who 
will  leave  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 

7.  Construct  a  full  four-year  domestic   science  course.     Arrange 
the  first  two  years  of  this  course   so  as  to  offer  a   short  domestic 
science  course  to  girls  of  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age  who  will 
leave  school  at  the  age  of  sixteen. 

Arrange  these  courses  as  a  unified  department  of  the  High 
School,  to  be  known  as  "The  Industrial  Department."  See  p.  58. 

Teaching  Staff. 

Here  one  applies  the  tests:  (1)  Individual  scholastic  equip- 
ment and  personal  power;  (2)  Efficiency  of  classroom  method  and 
management;  (3)  co-operation  and  esprit  de  corps;  (4)  Actual  re- 
sults in  the  habits  and  attainments  of  the  pupils. 

As  to  individual  scholastic  equipment,  the  faculty,  with  only 
a  very  few  exceptions,  have  records  indicating  adequate  attainments. 

54 


The  academic  degrees  held  by  most  of  the  members  of  the 
faculty  were  awarded  by  such  colleges  as  Yale,  Williams,  Wesleyan, 
Cornell,  Smith,  Harvard,  Columbia,  Mt.  Holyoke,  Wellesley/  and 
Middlebury.  Seven  members  of  the  faculty  are  Masters  of  Arts  from 
Yale,  Wesleyan,  Columbia,  or  Univarsity  of  Cincinnati;  and  one  is 
a  Doctor  of  Philosophy  of  YaVe. 

In  the  matter  of  personal  power,  classroom  efficiency,  and 
actual  results  being  attained,  the  faculty  appears  to  be  on  the 
whole  a  satisfactory  corps,  but  not  a  distinctly  strong  corps.  Though 
further  examination  might  establish  a  different  result,  the  grouping 
seems  to  be:  Apparently  possessing  special  merit,  4;  apparently  satis- 
factory, 21;  seemingly  doubtful  cases,  3;  apparently  unsatisfactory,  3; 
—total,  31. 

To  this  corps  should  be  added  in  the  new  school  laboratory 
assistants  for  the  science  teachers,  a  regular  librarian  for  a  regular 
library,  teachers  of  physical  education,  as  well  as  teachers  for  the 
new  academic  and  industrial  subjects  that  may  be  introduced. 

It  is  a  pleasure  to  record  the  kindly  and  interested  attitude 
of  the  teachers  and  their  evident  good  will  toward  the  pupils.  And 
to  the  systematic  and  encouraging  manner  of  the  teachers,  the 
pupils  show  a  responsiveness  that  makes  for  good  discipline  in 
classrooms  and  steady  progress  in  their  studies.  Furthermore,  all 
the  teachers  seem  desirous  of  rendering  industrious,  loyal  service 
to  the  school. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  visiting  classrooms  and  observing  actual 
teaching  exercises  throughout  the  school,  one  notes  insufficient  at- 
tention to  the  technique  of  the  recitation  and  the  principles  of  class 
teaching.  In  some  cases  a  teacher's  questioning  was  conducted  in  a 
slow  and  halting  manner.  Again  the  questions  were  of  a  rather 
rambling  character  instead  of  being  logically  sequential.  Frequently 
the  suggestive  question  was  used,  and  the  teacher's  questions  and 
comments  together  amounted  practically  to  reciting  for  the  pupils. 
Particular  pupils  were  made  to  respond  to  questioning  for  an  over- 
long  time,  so  that  too  few  of  the  class  participated  in  the  exercise; 
and  there  was  opportunity  for  the  majority  to  indulge  in  mind-wan- 
dering and  to  lose  interest  in  the  recitation.  Often  questions  were 
so  framed  as  to  require  merely  monosyllabic  answers  from  the  pupils, 
when  more  skillful  phrasing  of  the  question  would  have  elicited 
more  educative  responses.  Some  teachers  permitted  the  answering 
and  discussion  to  come  almost  entirely  from  volunteers,  with  the  result 
that  repeated  responses  were  given  by  certain  pupils  while  others 
contributed  nothing,  and  might  have  been  not  even  giving  attention 
to  the  matter  in  hand.  In  some  upper  class  work  the  teacher's 
questions  and  comments  obviously  indicated  the  aini  of  direct  coach- 
ing for  college  entrance  examinations  instead  of  making  the  most 
educative  use  of  the  subject  matter.  Only  exceptionally  did  the 
teacher  appear  to  realize  the  value  of  attention  to  the  assignment 
of  work  to  be  done  in  preparation  for  the  next  recitation  period, 

55 


although  It  is  well  known  that  neglect  of  the  assignment  means  losg 
of  opportunity  to  secure  good  attack  upon  home  work  and  application 
exercises. 

The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the  foregoing  observations  is 
that  the  average  level  of  teaching  efficiency  in  the  school  should 
be  higher  than  it  appears  to  be.  Certainly  much  improvement  could 
be  effected  by  sympathetic,  persistent,  and  capable  supervision  of  the 
helpful  and  constructive  sort.  In  this  school,  as  in  many  high  schools 
there  is  need  of  bringing  teachers  to  realize  the  fact  that,  in  order 
to  make  the  most  efficient  use  of  the  recitation  time,  the  teacher 
must  not  only  master  the  content  of  the  subject  to  be  taught  but  he 
must  also  study  assiduously  the  art  of  presenting  the  subject  in  class 
instruction. 


Vocational  Guidance. 

Something  should  be  undertaken  in  this  direction.  What  is  now 
being  done  in  various  places  may  seem  excessively  crude  and  awk- 
ward, but  the  movement  has  great  possibilities;  and  already  it  has 
done  the  important  thing  of  drawing  some  attention  off  the  subjects 
of  the  curriculum  to  direct  attention  toward  the  boy  and  girl,  with 
the  excellent  result  that  the  need  of  considering  their  individualities 
is  being  felt.  The  present  hit  or  miss  method  of  taking  jobs  and 
eventually  finding  or  not  finding  a  calling,  must  be  reformed;  and 
the  public  school  (in  co-operation  with  the  bureau  for  granting  work 
permits)  appears  to  be  society's  most  available  agency  for  effecting 
this  reform. 


Administration. 

The  principal  should  have  a  clerk  on -full  time  assistance,  and 
then  this  clerk  should  be  kept  fully  occupied  in  order  to:  (1)  ac- 
complish much  more  in  records,  reports,  statistics,  etc.,  than  is  now 
done;  (2)  to  set  the  principal  free  'from  the  office  lor  actual  super- 
vision of  the  school  and  improvement  of  the  educational  results  be- 
ing attained. 

Although  the  discipline  ef  the  school  is  undoubtedly  good,  cer- 
tain improvements  may  be  suggested.  The  hall  order  during  changes 
of  classes  would  be  better  if  running  along  halls  and  on  stairways 
were  absolutely  forbidden,  and  if  the  talking  permitted  during  the 
changes  were  kept  within  more  moderate  tones.  In  some  rooms 
there  is  unreasonable  noisiness  and  over-loud  talking  during  the  few 
minutes  before  the  signal  for  the  beginning  of  recitations  is  given. 
It,  is  ,not  pleasant  to  see  ;the  pupils  in  room  after  room  rising  in- 
stantly and  hurrying  from  the  room  on  the  stroke  of  the  bell,  instead 
of  awaiting  a  dismissal  signal  from  the  teacher. 

56 


With  thirty-one  assistant  teachers  for  a  school  of  about  850  pupils 
the  average  number  of  pupils  per  teac'her  is  kept  down  to  a  satis- 
factory ratio.  It  may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  pupils  into  recitation  classes  has  been  as  evenly  made 
as  was  possible.  In  the  task  of  constructing  the  school  schedule  for 
each  semester  the  principal  s'hould  have  the  assistance  of  a  selected 
teacher  who  should  receive  extra  compensation  for  the  extra  service 
rendered.  The  schedule  distinction  between  prepared  and  unprepared 
periods  is  not  strictly  followed  as  the  instruction  actually  goes  on; 
and  the  question  arises,  whether  this  distinction  may  not  advan- 
tageously be  abandoned.  Such  a  step  would  be  followed  by  an  im- 
proved mode  of  counting  credits  for  diploma.  The  present  plan  of 
excusing  from  the  semester  examinations  those  pupils  who  have 
term  averages  above  a  certain  mark  is  open  to  question  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  at  least  some  of  the  teachers  consider  that  some  ex- 
cased  pupils  ought  not  to  have  been  excused.  There  appears  to  be 
an  undue  amount  of  attention  to  marking,  tests  and  semester  exam- 
inations, but  as  long  as  these  examinations  are  held,  they  should  be 
conducted  as  exercises  having  definite  value  in  the  curriculum;  and 
no  pupils  should  be  excused  from  them.  The  mode  of  enrolling  pu- 
pils in  each  of  the  four  years  of  the  school  seems  peculiar  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  a  pupil  does  not  get  second  year  enrollment  until  he 
has  passed  every  item  of  his  first  year's  work,  nor  third  year  en- 
rollment until  he  has  passed  all  the  "second  year,  and  so  on.  It 
would  seem  that  a  pupil  is  entitled  to  the  higher  enrollment  as  soon 
as  he  has  passed  more  than  half  of  the  lower  year's  assignment;  and 
this  mode  of  enrolling  would  encourage  pupils  to  go  further  through 
the  course,  and  would  also  represent  more  truly  the  attainments  of 
pupils  and  their  progress  toward  the  diploma. 

With  additional  clerical  assistance  to  relieve  the  principal  of 
routine  matters  and  petty  details,  he  could  get  into  close  touch  with 
the  actual  teaching  of  his  assistants,  so  as  to  unify  and  elevate  the 
aims  of  instruction  in  the  various  departments,  and  improve  the  reci- 
tation work  throughout  the  school.  By  setting  an  example  of  pro- 
gressiveness,  assuming  professional  leadership,  stimulating  a  faculty 
to  dp  their  best  work,  a  principal  can  improve  the  attitude  and  the 
work  of  even  his  weakest  teacher.  In  the  matter  of  textbooks,  for 
example,  some  of  the  texts  in  use  in  the  high  school  are  by  no  means 
the  best  now  available;  yet  where  the  pupils  furnish  their  own  books 
it  would  appear  to  be. exceptionally  easy  to  keep  the  textbooks  abso- 
lutely up  to  date.  Teachers  must  be  kept  informed  about  new  books, 
new  apparatus,  improved  historical  and  literary  materials  for  school 
use;  for  even  if  much  of  this  new  equipment  were  not  obtainable 
because  of  lack  of  funds,  the  teachers  are  sure  to  get  new  and  valu- 
able ideas  from  continual  examination  of  the  latest  teaching  para- 
phernalia. Faculty  meetings  also,  and  particularly  departmental 
conferences,  can  be  made  occasions  for  lively  professional  discus- 
sions, instead  of  being  uninteresting  sessions  for  the  settlement  of 
petty  disciplinary  and  routine  matters. 

57 


General  Impressions  of  the  High  School. 

Extremely  parsimonious  administration.  A  school  body  of  boys 
and  girls  exhibiting  great  possibilities,  but  sadly  limited  in  the  edu- 
cational experience  actually  open  to  them. 

A  corps  of  teachers  not  markedly  progressive  as  a  whole,  though 
noteworthy  exceptions  stand  out. 

Certainly  a  principal  cause  of  the  weaknesses  that  appear  to 
characterize  the  school  is  to  be  found  in  the  extremely  unfavorable 
conditions  as  to  building  and  equipment  under  which  the  school  is 
being  conducted  in  a  practically  continuous  hurrying  of  recitations 
from  early  in  the  morning  until  late  in  the  afternoon. 


Future  Extension  of  High  School  Opportunities. 

The  enrollment  at  the  High  .School  is  less  than  one-half  as  great 
as  it  s'hould  be  in  a  city  of  Bridgeport's  size. 

Doubtless  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  under  which  the  high 
school  work  is  carried  on  at  present  will  account  for  this  in  part. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  features  are  lacking  which  in  a  high 
school  in  an  industrial  city  are  indispensable.  The  industries  need 
trained  superintendents  and  foremen  of  departments  and  draftsmen. 
The  High  School  ought  to  aim  to  furnish  them,  and  the  boys  and  girls 
of  the  city  who  are  so  minded  should  find  in  the  public  high  school 
opportunity  to  prepare  for  such  positions  of  responsibility  while  get- 
ting a  thoroughly  good  general  education. 

The  new  high  school  building,  the  erection  of  which  on  a  ^«n- 
tral  site  is  now  assured,  s'hould  afford  such  opportunities  in  its  in- 
dustrial department.  The  following  recommendations  are  made  for 
the  development  of  such  a  department: 

The  Industrial  Department 

The  industrial  department  should  be  established  for  the  benefit 
of  pupfls  who  are  ambitious  enough  to  desire  a  high  school  education, 
but  who  expect  to  go  to  work  at  the  close  of  the  high  school  course 
The  demand  for  preparation  for  technical  colleges  should  be  encour- 
aged, but  this  demand  is  met  by  the  classical  department.  College 
preparation  s'hould  not  be  the  aim  of  the  industrial  department.  Its 
main  object  should  be  to  give  a  high  school  training  that  has  a  real 
bearing  on  the  life  which  these  children  are  going  to  live. 

Throughout  the  department,  the  work  should  be  intensely  prac- 
tical,— the  value  of  a  complete  forge  shop  is  questionable;  courses 
consisting  of  a  series  of  exercises  or  models  would  not  function;  the 
usual  type  of  wood  turning  course  would  have  little  place  in  a  Bridge- 

58 


port  high  school.  Mechanical  drawing,  'however,  should  be  a  very 
important  feature  and  should  be  conducted  on  the  basis  of  a  thor- 
oughly modern  industrial  draughting  room.  Courses  in  pattern-mak- 
ing, foundry  work,  and  machine  work  can  all  be  made  to  serve  the 
demands  of  this  department. 

The  shops  should  be  distinctly  industrial,  both  as  to  arrange- 
ment of  their  equipment  and  the  type  of  work  done  in  them.  The 
boys  should  be  given  experiences  in  producing  actual  machines,  en- 
gines, or  motors,  from  the  making  of  the  drawing  and  the  pattern, 
to  the  completion  of  the  project  in  the  machine  shop.  The  girls 
should  'have  real  dressmaking,  real  millinery,  and  real  housekeep- 
ing, rather  than  laboratory  exercises. 

The  equipment  of  this  department  will  require  approximately 
twenty  thousand  (20,000)  feet  of  floor  space,  and  will  involve  an  ex- 
penditure of  about  twenty  thousand  ($20,000)  dollars. 

There  are  few  technical  high  schools  in  the  United  States  which 
serve  the  purpose  which  needs  to  be  served  by  the  industrial  depart- 
ment of  the  Bridgeport  High  School.  It  is  not  safe,  therefore,  to  copy 
technical  high  schools  of  other  cities. 

Bridgeport  needs  to  develop  high  school  industrial  training  of 
the  type  adapted  to  'her  own  particular  needs. 

Rough  Estimate  for  Industrial  Equipment 

For  Machine  Shop,  $12,000  4000  to  6000  sq.  ft 

"  Wood  Shop,  3,000  6000  "    " 

"  Foundry,  1,000  2000  "     " 

"  Cooking,  1,000  1200  "    " 

"  Sewing,  750  1800  "    " 

"  Drawing,  1,000  2000  "    " 

$18,750  19000     "     " 

Maximum  cost,  $20,000  20000  sq.  ft 

Academic  Work. 

The  class  work  should  not  be  a  duplication  of  that  given  in  the 
classical  department,  but  should  consist  of  special  courses  given  by 
special  teachers.  The  subjects  should  be: 

1.  English 

2.  Applied  Mathematics 

3.  Industrial   History  , 

4.  Civics 

5.  Physiology  and  Hygiene 

59 


Laboratory  Work — Boys. 

The  laboratory  work  for  boys  should  be  distinctly  industrial. 
Those  phases  of  physics  should  be  selected  which  have  industrial  ap- 
plications such  as: 

1.  Testing  of  metals,  cements,  woods,  etc. 

2.  Effects  of  heat  on  metals 

3.  Distribution  of  power 

(a)  Mechanical 

(b)  Electrical 

4.  Chemical  reactions  most  used  in  local  industries 

Laboratory  Work— Girls. 

Laboratory  work  for  girls  should  apply  to  domestic  science  and 
deal  with: 

1.  Foods, — elements,  chemistry  of 

2.  Textiles, — sources,  tests,  properties 

3.  Sanitation 

Shop  Work. 

First  Half  Second  Half 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Wood  work  Pattern  making 

1.  Simple  projects 

(that  are  needed) 

2.  Study  of  wood  trusses 

(with  tests) 

3.  Concrete  forms 

(with  study  of  concrete) 
Mechanical  drawing,  partially  related  to  shop  work. 

First  Half  Second  Half 

•ECOND  YEAR. 

Pattern  making  Foundry   work 

Mechanical  drawing,  partially  related  to  shop  work. 

First  Half  Second  Half 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Machine   work  Machine   work 

Mechanical  drawing,  partially  related  to  shop  work. 

First  Half  Second  Half 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Machine   work  Machine   work 

Mechanical  drawing,  partially  related  to  shop  work. 

Each  student  should  participate  in  carrying  some  one  project 
from  the  'drawing  room  through  all  of  the  departments,  as,  for  in- 
stance, a  gas  engine,  an  ice  machine,  an  electric  motor. 

60 


Blectives  should  be  permitted  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  for 
specializing  in  drafting,  architectural  drawing,  wood  working,  or 
electrical  construction. 

Domestic  TYork— Girls. 

Sewing  (plain) 

Cooking 

Dressmaking 

Millinery 

Applied  design 

Costume  design 

Household  accounts 

General  housekeeping 

Electives  should  be  permitted  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  for 
specializing  in  advanced  domestic  science,  domestic  art,  or  designing. 


VIII.    THE  INDUSTRIES  OF  BRIDGEPORT. 

A  scheme  of  education  that  ignores  the  circumstances  surround- 
ing the  individual  is  misdirected  and  wasteful.  Education  is  not 
limited  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  that  is  stored  up  in  books.  It 
is  more  than  this.  It  is  in  part  the  adjustment  of  the  individual  to 
his  environment,  and  in  part  fitting  the  individual  to  improve  his  en- 
vironment; the  more  real  the  adjustment,  and  the  greater  the  intelli- 
gence, the  more  efficient  the  education. 

The  majority  of  workers  in  Bridgeport  are  employed  in  manu- 
facturing. A  great  proportion  of  the  children  will  go  into  the  fac- 
tories and  shops  when  they  leave  school.  Each  month  about  150  chil- 
dren apply  for  working  certificates,  seeking  to  take  their  places  In 
the  life  of  the  city.  If  an  intelligent  report  is  to  be  made  on  the 
school  system  of  Bridgeport,  it  is  just  as  important  to  study  the  in- 
dustries as  it  is  to  study  the  schools.  All  that  has  been  said  upon 
the  subject  of  industrial  education,  and  all  that  follows  relating  to 
that  topic,  is  based  upon  as  careful  study  of  the  industries  of  Bridge- 
port as  has  been  made  of  its  schools. 

Conditions  of  Employment 

The  industrial  conditions  in  Bridgeport  are  largely  the  result  of 
the  development  of  automatic  machinery  which  has  'led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  many  manufacturing  plants  in  the  city.  There  is  a  great 
variety  of  output,  including  automobiles,  brass  tubing  and  castings, 
corsets,  electrical  fixtures,  electric  cable,  cartridges,  hardware,  ma- 
chine tools,  automatic  machines,  silverware,  textiles,  typewriters,  talk- 
ing machines,  valves,  paper  boxes,  etc,,  etc.  In  spite  of  this  variety 
of  output,  there  is  much  similarity  in  the  operations  necessary  to 

61 


produce  it;  the  use  of  metal  predominates;  the  machinist,  as  a  me- 
chanic, is  at  the  bottom  of  all  production, — his  hand  is  seen  in  the 
building  of  machines  to  equip  plants,  and  his  presence  is  needed  in 
the  tool-rooms  which  are  maintained  by  all  the  large  plants. 

The  development  of  the  automatic  industries  has  opened  up  a 
large  field  of  unskilled  labor  for  boys  and  girls  in  operating  presses 
and  automatic  machines.  This  is  attractive  to  them  because  it  offers 
better  pay  for  beginners  than  other  lines  of  work.  The  children  who 
enter  this  field  are  usually  the  retarded  children  who  leave  school 
from  the  lower  grades,  and  they  have  little  difficulty  in  finding  work 
o-f  this  kind.  Girls  are  more  desired,  and  receive  better  pay  than 
boys  doing  similar  work.  Their  work  is  more  satisfactory,  they  stand 
the  monotony  better,  require  less  watching,  and  are  more  steady  and 
less  careless  than  the  boys.  This  applies  especially  to  plants  in  which 
the  output  is  controlled  by  the  speed  of  machines,  and  which  are  run 
on  a  piece-work  basis.  Boys  are  employed  in  certain  cases,  because 
the  concerns  cannot  pay  the  wages  which  the  girls  are  able  to  demand. 
For  instance,  girls  operating  mac'hines  on  a  piece-work  basis  receive 
from  six  to  ten  dollars  per  week,  the  boys  in  parallel  lines  receiving 
only  from  five  to  six  dollars  per  week.  The  apparent  advantages  of 
the  field  of  unskilled  labor,  namely,  good  pay  at  the  start,  the  need 
of  little  previous  training  and  the  ease  of  securing  employment,  are 
more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  disadvantages,  which  are  that  the 
work  offers  little  or  no  advancement;  it  is  entirely  automatic,  so 
preventing  mental  development;  and  in  later  years,  when  nimbleness 
and  speed  are  lost,  the  worker  often  cannot  find  any  profitable  em- 
ployment. 

A  much  better,  though  somewhat  limited  field  for  the  young 
workers  is  offered  by  the  recognized  trades.  These  are  usually  en- 
tered through  apprenticeship,  but  can  be  entered  also  by  the  aid  of 
special  schools  co-operating  with  the  shops,  or  even  by  "stealing  the 
trade."  Though  the  pay  is  smaller  at  the  beginning,  and  the  worker 
tttust  be  from  the  non-retarded  class,  and  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
/ears  of  age,  this  way  leads  to  the  acquisition  of  a  skilled  trade,  be- 
sides developing  the  all-round  ability  of  the  worker,  and  gives  the 
prospect  of  future  advancement 

There  is  another  line  of  skilled  work  open  to  boys,  which  is 
quite  distinct  from  the  well  known  trades.  It  may  be  called  "assem- 
bling and  adjusting,"  and  offers  a  large  field  in  Bridgeport.  A  boy 
should  begin  early  at  this  work,  for  mechanical  training  in  general 
is  of  no  assistance;  the  work  depends  on  nimbleness  of  fingers  and 
acquaintance  with  the  details  of  the  product,  rather  than  on  general 
mechanical  ability.  In  many  important  lines,  this  work  is  classed  as 
skilled,  and  has  a  good  future  prospect. 

Another  field  outside  of  the  shops  and  factories  is  to  be  found 
in  stores  and  commercial  houses.  These  employ,  on  the  average,  a 
better  grade  of  help  than  is  employed  by  the  shops  and  factories. 
The  records  of  the  State  Agent  who  issues  working  certificates  show 

62 


that  in  most  cases  the  large  majority  of  children  in  the  shops  have 
been  retarded  in  school;  Whereas  the  stores  take  boys  and  girls  from 
higher  grades,  and  the  ages  of  these  children  indicate  that  most  of 
them  aro  bright  children  who  passed  through  their  schools  without 
retardation. 

Working  Certification. 

Connecticut  is  progressive  in  her  child  employment  law.  Every 
child  wis'hin.g  to  enter  employment  under  the  age  of  sixteen  must 
obtain  a  certificate  from  one  of  the  State  Agents;  in  order  to  secure 
this  he  must  give  evidence  that  he  is  fourteen  years  old,  that  he  can 
read  and  write  and  solve  examples  in  whole  numbers  and  fractions; 
no  certificate  is  issued  to  a  child  who  appears  to  be  physically  unfit 
for  employment.  The  name  of  every  child  who  receives  a  certificate, 
together  with  his  place  of  employment,  is  kept  on  record  until  he  has 
completed  his  sixteenth  year.  The  employer  must  send  a  notice  to 
the  State  Agent's  office  when  a  child  is  employed  and  when  the  child 
leaves  his  employ;  and,  at  each  change  of  employment,  the  child 
must  obtain  a  new  certificate.  If  a  new  position  is  not  reported  in 
one  week,  a  letter  is  sent  to  the  child's  parent  or  guardian,  asking 
for  a  report  as  to  his  employment.  If  no  satisfactory  reply  is  made, 
the  Agent  is  sent  to  investigate. 

The  Bridgeport  Agent  has  carried  out  the  law  so  efficiently  that 
out  of  3000  children  looked  after  in  the  Bridgeport  district,  only  four, 
it  is  said,  have  proved  to  be  chronic  loafers.  A  marked  decrease  in 
the  number  of  children  on  the  streets  has  become  apparent,  and  both 
parents  and  children  have  come  to  realize  that  all  Children  between 
the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen  must  be  either  in  school  or  at  work 
and  properly  certificated;  and  that  the  State  has  a  system  and  the 
machinery  for  knowing  where  the  children  are. 

There  are,  however,  certain  improvements  to  be  recommended,  if 
the  city  is  to  realize  the  full  benefit  of  this  system.  The  State  law 
permits  a  city  to  establish  the  grade  that  a  child  must  complete  be- 
fore taking  out  working  papers.  Under  this  act  a  city  school  boar*1 
may  require  the  child  to  complete  a  certain  grade  in  addition  to 
meeting  the  state  requirements  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 
Many  cities  have  acted  on  this  provision  with  varying  standards,  but 
the  Bridgeport  School  Board  has  not  taken  any  action.  As  a  result, 
children  from  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  grades  are  applying  for 
working  certificates,  although  some  have  to  hire  tutors  to  enable 
them  to  pass  the  Agent's  examinations.  The  Bridgeport  Agent  has 
recently  ruled  that  applicants  shall  have  reached  the  fifth  grade,  but 
this  means  that  only  the  fourth  must  be  completed.  For  the  protec- 
tion of  the  efficiency  of  the  Bridgeport  school  system,  it  would  seem 
essential  that  a  fairly  high  grade  requirement  be  established;  and  for 
the  protection  of  children  against  going  to  work  before  they  are 
qualified  to  meet  the  serious  task  of  earning  a  living  and  becoming 
American  citizens,  the  completion  of  the  sixth  grade  is  the  lowest 

63 


advisable   requirement.     The   completion   of   the   fifth   grade   might, 
however,  be  the  extent  of  the  requirement  for  a  year  or  two. 

Another  development,  much  -to  be  desired,  is  the  establishment 
of  special  classes,  for  the  foreign  born  and  backward  children.  At 
present  there  is  no  provision  in  the  Bridgeport  school  system  for 
these  children;  regardless  of  age  <they  must  take  their  places  in  the 
grades  according  to  academic  standards.  In  justice  to  the  foreign  born 
children  who  come  to  Bridgeport,  and  in  justice  to  the  young  children  in 
the  lower  grades,  there  should  be  classes  for  meeting  the  needs  of  these 
handicapped,  but  by  no  means  stupid,  children.  It  is  exploitation  if 
they  are  given  working  papers  before  they  have  their  educational 
equipment,  and  it  is  a  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  the  lower  grade 
classes  to  have  these  older  children  in  them. 

It  would  be  well,  also,  if  the  law  controlling  the  Issuance  of 
working  certificates  could  be  extended  to  include  other  classes  of 
children.  At  present  it  can  be  made  to  apply  only  to  those  in  me- 
chanical, mercantile,  and  manufacturing  trades.  It  is  the  group  of 
children  going  into  "blind  alley"  occupations, — the  boys  who  set  up 
pins  in  bowling  alleys,  usher  in  moving-picture  shows  or  theatres, 
messengers,  newsboys, — these  are  the  children  who  most  need  pro- 
tection. 

Finally,  much  good  could  be  accomplished  by  closer  relations 
between  the  School  Department  and  the  State  Agent's  office.  The 
bchools  should  know  when  a  child  has  received  working  papers,  and 
the  Agent  would  profit  by  a  knowledge  of  the  child's  school  history. 
A  very  great  help  would  be  the  establishment  of  a  vocational  guid- 
ance department  which  would  act  in  conjunction  with  the  School 
Board  and  the  State  Agent's  office.  The  value  of  such  a  department 
has  been  alluded  to  in  connection  with  the  High  School. 


Summary  of  Tabulation  of  Working  Certificates  in  Bridgeport,  com- 
piled from  data  in  the  State  Agent's  Office: 

September,  1911,  to  December,  1912,  inclusive. 

Total  number  issued  to  boys 1244 

Total  number  issued  to  girls   953 

2197 

Total  number  given  to  those  14  years  old  1192 

Total  number  given  to  those  15  years  old  972 

Total  number  given  to  those  16  years  old  51 

2215 

Discrepancy  18 

64 


Nationality  of  foreign  born: 

Austrians,  Hungarians    ...........  138 

Italians 122 

Russians 44 

English    31 

Germans    12 

Norwegians,  Swedish  11 

Canadians    9 

Irish 9 

Scotch 5 

Polish   6 

Turkish,  Syrians 4 

Bohemians   2 

Spanish    1 

Total  number  of  foreign  born  ...     393 

Total  number  employed  in  factories  1476 

Total  number  employed  in  stores   465 

Number  of  certificates  issued  to  children  from  the — 

Second  grade   10 

Third   grade    49 

Fourth  grade   192 

Fifth  grade   564 

Sixth   grade    541 

Seventh    grade    401 

Eighth  grade   169 

High  school    57 

Ungraded   200 

Total 2183 

Discrepancy    32 

Eolation  of  the  Schools  to  tbe  Conditions  of  Employment. 

If  the  schools  are  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people  of  Bridgeport, 
what  are  they  doing  in  preparing  the  children  fpr  the  industrial  and 
commercial  life  of  the  city?  What  kind  of  training  are  they  offering 
to  children  who  have  reached  fourteen,  the  age  of  certification,  and 
are  leaving  school  and  joining  the  ranks  of  unskilled  labor?  These 
questions  are  of  vital  importance  if  the  schools  are  to  serve  the  in- 
dustrial needs  of  a  people  whose  main  occupations  are  of  a  mechanical 
or  commercial  nature. 

65 


The  schools  have  been  notably  conservative.  As  the  industries 
and  business  life  of  the  city  have  undergone  changes  almost  revo- 
lutionary the  schools  have  made  but  few  concessions  to  these  new 
conditions  of  life.  Drawing,  to  be  sure,  has  been  introduced  owing 
to  pressure  from  the  industrial  field  but  it  has  now  lost  its  vocational 
significance.  Cooking  and  manual  training  have  been  given  the  place 
in  the  school  system  which  is  usually  assigned  to  these  subjects 
elsewhere  without  much  emphasis  upon  their  industrial  significance. 

Very  little  can  be  pointed  out  in  the  school  curriculum  that 
indicates  a  real  adjustment  to  the  industrial  life  of  the  community, 
or,  what  is  equivalent,  the  most  imperative  needs  of  the  majority 
of  the  children.  Reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  are  necessary  for 
all,  of  course,  and,  for  those  going  early  into  industrial  life  they 
are  their  vocational  equipment;  but  these  subjects  need  concrete 
applications  to  be  taught  effectively.  Children  are  not  successful 
in  applying  fundamental  principles  to  concrete  instances  without 
being  taught  definitely  'how  to  make  the  applications.  At  present 
the  schools  are  giving  the  fundamental  principles,  but  are  not 
looking  to  the  activities  of  the  local  community  for  the  application. 

All  children  are  put  through  the  same  processes  regardless  of 
their  future  prospects.  Even  if  all  were  going  to  remain  through 
the  eight  grades  of  the  elementary  course  and  enter  the  high  school, 
this  plan  could  not  be  fully  defended,  but  the  facts  afford  no  justifi- 
cation for  the  prevailing  practice.  A  very  large  majority  of  the 
children  leave  school  early  and  go  into  definite  lines  of  employment, 
a  circumstance  which  has  little,  if  any,  effect  in  shaping  the  scheme 
of  studies  for  the  grammar  grades. 


Hand  Work  and  Household  Management. 

Bridgeport  is  a  city  of  workers.  To  make  the  school  life  reflect 
the  activities  of  the  city  practical  work  must  be  introduced  into  the 
school  system.  The  school  system  can  adjust  itself  to  the  present 
industrial  situation  in  one  respect  by  making  local  applications  of 
the  bookwork  and  by  organizing  liand  work  throughout  the  eight 
grades.  The  handwork  should  be  planned  to  give  the  children 
a  series  of  experiences  in  the  use  of  varied  materials  and  processes 
that  will  acquaint  them  with  the  activities  of  the  city.  Real  things 
made  by  the  children  offer  the  best  opportunities  for  teaching  the 
three  "R's"  for  they  make  plain  to  the  child  that  the  three  "R's" 
have  application  to  the  affairs  of  real  life.  Hand  work  makes  the 
work  of  the  school  seem  real  to  the  child  and  gives  him  an  intro- 
duction to  the  world  outside  the  school.  His  thought  is  stimulated, 
his  ingenuity  is  aroused,  and  school  means  happy  experience  in- 
ftead  of  monotonous  drill. 


66 


Following  is  a  suggestive  outline  of  hand  work  for  all  grades: 

HAND  WORK  FOR  GRADES  I  TO  V. 

Boys  and  Girls — in  Classroom  with  Regular  Teacher. 

GRADE  VI. 

Problems  in  construction  representing        Materials  to  be  used. 

1.  The  Home  1.     Paper 

2.  Scenes  from  Stories  2.     Cardboard 

3.  History  3.     Wood 

4.  Neighbor-hoods  4.     Clay 

5.  Handicrafts  5.     Cement 

6.  Textiles  6.     Plaster 

7.  Textiles 

8.  Colors 

Shop  Work  for  Boys— 1H  Hours  Per  Week. 

Mechanical  studies  as  Materials  used. 

1.  Elevators  1.    Metal 

2.  Cranes  2.    Wood 

3.  Water  Motors  * 

4.  Model  Machines 

5.  Model  Framing 

For  Girls — 1H  hours  per  week. 

First  half  year Sewing  Second  half  year Cooking 

GRADE  VIL 

Shop  work  for  Boys — B6  hours  per  week. 

Concrete  work  (forms  made  of  wood)   Materials  used. 

Foundry  work  Wood 

Flask  Metal 

Tools  Cement 

Soft  casting 

Railroad  models 

Boat  models 

For  Girls — 1%  hours  per  week. 

First  half  year Sewing  Second  half  year Cooking 

GRADE  VHL 

Shop  work  for  boys — 1%  hours  per  week. 

Wood  problems  in  the  making  of  Processes  taught 

furniture  or  Metal  beating 

A  problem  in  metal  as  Soldering 

Model  steam  turbine  Drilling 

Sheet  copper  and  Punching 

Brass  working  Filing 

Threading ' 

For  girls — 1%  hours  per  week. 
First  half  year Sewing          Second  half  year Cooking 

67 


Besides  giving  a  boy  general  information  and  mechanical  experi- 
ence, a  scheme  of  this  sort,  with  its  variety  of  processes  and  ma- 
terials, is  affording  him  a  try-out  experience,  to  determine  what  hia 
tendencies  are,  and  what  ability  he  shows  as  a  young  boy.  Many 
boys  have  found  (themselves  and  learned  what  lines  of  work  they 
should  or  should  not  go  into  by  experience  of  this  sort 

The  girls  in  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades  are  in  as  great 
need  of  practical  work  as  the  boys,  though  of  course  of  a  different 
type.  Whether  our  girls  are  going  on  through  high  school  or  whether 
they  are  going  into  the  shops  when  fourteen,  they  are  ultimately  to 
be  managers  of  households.  One  of  the  greatest  social  services  that 
the  school  can  render,  -therefore,  is  to  give  them  some  practical  ex- 
perience looking  toward  the  wise  management  of  a  home.  In  school 
they  should  have  real  problems  in  sewing  and  cooking;  they  should 
be  taught  household  sanitation,  proper  methods  of  cleaning,  and 
practical  hygiene.  This  means  taking  problems  such  as  exist  in  the 
average  home  and  working  them  out  in  school.  In  order  that  every 
girl  may  receive  a  fair  share  of  cooking  and  sewing,  it  is  proposed 
that  a  semester  should  be  given  to  each,  in  alternation,  through  these 
three  grades.  • 

Additional  shops  and  cooking  centers  will  be  needed  to  handle 
this  work  effectively,  and  the  teaching  force  must  neces- 
sarily be  increased.  It  will  require  three  men  teachers  to  give  the 
boys  of  the  sixth,  seventh  and  eighth  grades  shop  training  for  one 
and  one-half  hours  per  week.  Two  cooking  teachers  and  two  sewing 
teachers  will  be  needed  to  instruct  the  girls.  Five  shop  centers 
and  four  cooking  centers  will  probably  be  needed.  The  sewing  can 
be  done  in  the  class  room.  This  work  should  be  done  within  the 
regular  school  hours  and  should  not,  as  is  the  practice  at  present, 
begin  earlier  and  continue  later  than  the  regular  school  sessions. 

Five  shop  centers  are  needed.  They  should  be  located  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  first  center  -at  School  No.  3.  One  man  in  four  days  will  cover 
Schools  No.  3,  No.  4,  No.  5  and  No.  23. 

The  second  center  at  School  No.  1.  One  man  in  three  days  will 
cover  Schools  No.  1,  No.  6,  and  No.  7. 

The  third  center  at  School  No.  10.  One  man  in  two  days  will 
cover  Schools  No.  8,  No.  9,  and  No.  10. 

The  fourth  center  at  School  No.  14.  One  man  in  four  days  will 
cover  Schools  No.  12,  No.  13,  No.  14,  No.  16,  No.  17,  and  No.  18. 

The  fifth  center  at  School  No.  19.  One  man  in  two  days  will 
cover  Schools  No.  19,  No.  20,  and  No.  22. 

Four  cooking  centers  are  needed.  They  should  be  located  as 
follows:  . 

The  first  center,  at  School  No.  3.  One  teacher  in  two  and  one- 
half  days  will  cover  Schools  No.  3,  No.  4,  No.  5,  and  No.  23. 

68 


The  second  center  at  School  No.  7  (as  now  located).  One  teacher 
in  two  and  one-half  days  will  cover  Schools  No.  1,  No.  6,  No.  7,  No. 
8,  No.  9,  and  No.  10. 

The  third  center  at  School  No.  14.  One  teacher  in  three  day§ 
will  cover  Schools  No.  12,  No.  13,  No.  14,  No.  16,  No.  17,  and  No.  18. 

The  fourth  center  at  School  No.  19.  One  teacher  in  two  days 
will  cover  schools  No.  19,  No.  20,  and  No.  22. 

Prevocational  Work. 

A  study  of  the  situation  in  Bridgeport  discloses  an  imperative 
need  for  prevocational  training  for  those  children  who  must  leave 
school  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  age  of  fourteen.  It  has  been  fre- 
quently said  that  the  best  thing  the  school  can  do  is  to  give  these 
children  the  best  education  it  can,  and  let  them  go  to  work,  but  the 
question  remains  as  to  what  is  the  best  method  of  giving  them  this 
education.  There  is  evidence  that  the  present  course  of  study,  laid 
out  alike  for  all  children,  gives  but  little  education  to  this  particular 
group,  and  that  little  falls  far  short  of  life  equipment 

A  much  more  efficient  training  can  be  given  these  children  if 
they  are  grouped  by  themselves  and  trained  in  a  special  line  of  work 
adapted  to  their  immediate  future  needs.  In  the  regular  grammar 
school  buildings,  prevocational  groups  can  be  readily  organized,  with- 
out any  strict  regard  to  grade  standing,  for  the  boys  and  girls  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  years  of  age,  who  will  leave  school  as  soon  as 
they  are  fourteen.  Three  hours  of  fundamental  work  in  the  three 
"R's"  should  take  up  the  morning,  and  two  hours  in  the  afternoon 
should  be  given  to  practical  work.  This  should  not  be  regarded  as 
manual  training,  but  should  be  real  vocational  experience,  and  should 
include  commercial  work  such  as  typewriting,  filling  orders  from  a 
stock  room  and  doing  up  packages;  also  mechanical  trades  such  as 
metal  work,  carpentry,  masonry,  shoe  repairing,  foundry  work  and 
printing,  with  strong  emphasis  on  practical  drawing.  Though  girls 
as  well  as  boys  should  have  the  commercial  experience  of  typewrit- 
ing and  filling  orders,  a  large  proportion  of  their  time  should  be 
devoted  to  'household  management,  including  sewing  and  cooking.  If 
time  should  permit,  the  girls  might  have  a  short  factory  experience 
in  the  making  of  paper  boxes  such  as  are  needed  by  the  school  de- 
partment. 

Prevocational  work  is  not  a  duplication  of  the  function  of  the 
trade  school.  The  trade  school  cannot  receive  boys  or  girls  under 
fourteen  years  of  age.  Moreover,  it  must  keep  Its  pupils  two  yean 
in  order  to  give  them  a  fair  training.  Since  the  records  of  the  State 
Agent  indicate  that  a  great  many  children  leave  school  as  soon  ai 
they  are  'fourteen,  it  is  a  social  service  to  the  city  to  see  that  before 
they  leave  these  children  are  given  special  attention  in  school  witk 
work  adapted  to  meet  their  special  needs.  This  work  is  known  a» 
prevocational. 

69  "* 


The  afternoon  work  will  Involve  the  presence  of  two  teachers 
with  a  class,  but  the  cost  of  the  instruction  will  be  reduced  as  the 
class  teacher  becomes  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  trade  pro- 
cesses to  handle  them  himself. 

Mornings,  Boys  and  Girls,  twelve  to  fourteen,  3  hours. 

1.  English 

2.  Applied  arithmetic 

3.  Industrial  geography  (beginning  with  Bridgeport) 

4.  Industrial   history,   including   citizenship 

Afternoon,  Boys— 2  hours. 

A  series  of  short  commercial  and  trade  experiences  to  be  taught 
by  workers  actually  engaged  in  the  following  lines:  (Regular  class 
teacher  to  be  present). 

1.  Woodwork 

2.  Metal  work 

3.  Mason  work 

4.  Electrical  work 

5.  Commercial  work 

(a)  Salesmanship 

(b)  Typewriting 

(c)  Filling  orders 

6.  Printing 

Afternoon,  Girls — 2  hours. 

A  series  of  domestic,  industrial  and  commercial  experiences  to 
be  taught  by  workers  actually  engaged  in  the  following  lines:  (Reg- 
ular class  teacher  to  be  present). 

1.  Sewing 

(articles   needed) 

2.  Cooking 

(plain  and  simple) 

3.  Household  management 

(sweeping,  cleaning,  etc.) 

4.  Commercial  work 

(a)  Salesmanship 

(b)  Typewriting 

5.  Paper  box  making 

A  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  the  success  of  each  boy  and 
gjirl  in  the  varied  lines  of  work. 

Drawing. 

The  course  in  drawing  extends  throughout  the  grades,  but  only 
one  teacher  of  drawing  is  employed.  As  there  are  over  15,000 
children  in  school,  one  person  cannot  exert  a  great  influence  in  their 
work.  Her  function  is  that  of  a  supervisor,  visiting  the  classes  and 
holding  teachers'  meetings.  Drawing  is  not  an  expensive  form  of 

70 


instruction  to  maintain,  but  if  properly  conducted,  is  a  very  valu- 
able factor  in  modern  education.  But  with  lack  of  sufficient  teaching 
force  and  with  limited  materials,  the  great  possibilities  of  the  sub- 
ject are  not  being  realized. 

The  character  of  the  work  outlined  is  fairly  typical  of  that  found 
in  many  cities.  An  effort  is  made  throughout  the  course  to  develop 
in  the  pupils  an  appreciation  of  the  beautiful.  The  principles  of 
design  are  taught,  and  simple  applications  are  made  by  constructing 
objects  of  paper  or  cardboard.  A  more  practical  application  may  be 
found,  however,  in  the  girls'  sewing  and  the  boys'  shop  work. 

In  the  lower  grades,  where  hand  work  and  drawing  are  closely 
related,  there  is  enough  work  for  three  visiting  teachers  or  assistant 
supervisors  who  should  be  acquainted  with  bath  hand  work  and  draw- 
ing. Under  the  direction  of  a  general  supervisor,  the  assistants 
should  give  demonstration  lessons  from  class  to  class,  allowing  the 
regular  teachers  to  continue  the  work  between  visits. 

In  the  higher  grades  this  arrangement  would  not  be  satisfac- 
tory. To  give  instruction  in  drawing  successfully  in  these  more 
advanced  classes,  the  teacher  herself  should  have  some  special  abil- 
ity in  this  subject.  A  departmental  system  could  be  'organized,  with- 
out extra  cost,  whereby  some  teachers  with  ability  in  this  work 
could  exchange  classes  with  such  teachers  as  lack  this  ability. 

The  teaching  should  be  broadened  to  include  that  part  of  drawing 
which  is  related  to  industrial  work.  At  present  only  the  artistic  side 
is  emphasized,  while  the  mechanical  side,  which  especially  needs  em- 
phasis in  Bridgeport,  is  neglected.  The  drawing  teacher  has  recog- 
nized this  lack,  and  with  the  teacher  of  manual  training  is  consider- 
ing how  this  need  may  be  met,  although  thus  far  nothing  has  been 
arranged.  It  is  important  that  in  the  development  of  this  mechanical 
side  of  drawing,  as  well  as  in  applied  design,  the  handiwork  and 
the  drawing  should  be  closely  related.  Boys,  especially,  should  be 
given  the  rudiments  of  mechanical  drawing.  Boys  who  leave  school 
early  cannot  expect  to  be  taught  draughting,  and  young  boys  cannot 
handle  drawing  instruments  except  those  of  a  very  crude  type.  The 
value  of  using  such  instruments  is  distinctly  questionable.  But  as 
there  is  an  increasing  demand  on  the  part  of  shops  that  boys  be  able 
to  read  drawings,  and  to  make  simple  sketches  of  shop  objects,  they 
should  be  taught  how  to  make  three  views  of  an  object,  and  should 
be  trained  to  make  simple  freehand  sketches.  An  educational  oppor- 
tunity is  utilized,  also,  when  boys  are  taught  to  make  simple  working 
drawings  of  the  things  they  construct  in  the  shop.  It  is  not  desir- 
able that  grammar  school  boys  be  given  a  set  course  in  mechanical 
drawing,  but  when  they  make  projects  they  should  be  taught  to  make 
working  drawings  of  those  projects. 

In  the  Industrial  department  of  the  High  School,  a  strong  course 
in  mechanical  drawing  is  essential. 

71 


Tke  Industrial  School  for  Trade  Training. 

The  Bridgeport  Trade  School  does  not  furnish  all  of  the  indus- 
trial education  that  is  needed  in  the  city.  It  has  a  capacity  in  the 
boys'  department  of  from  150  to  175  pupils,  but  the  attendance  is  far 
below  that,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  large  waiting  list  is  reported. 
Bridgeport  needs  an  industrial  school  rather  than  a  trade  school. 
To  supply  this  need,  the  present  trade  school  might  be  converted 
into  an  industrial  school  or  an  independent  industrial  school  might 
be  organized  within  the  school  system. 

The  organization  of  this  school  should  not  be  on  the  program 
scheme,  common  to  most  schools,  but  on  the  project  scheme,  with 
requirements  varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  done.  Each 
boy's  drawing  and  mathematics  should  'definitely  apply  to  each  pro- 
ject he  has  to  work  out  in  the  shop,  and  not  be  a  part  of  a  fixed 
course;  and  each  project  should  involve  a  complete  process  .from 
raw  material  to  finished  product.  One-half  the  time  should  be  given 
to  theoretical  work  as  drawing,  shop  mathematics,  applied  science, 
and  citizenship.  The  day  should  not  be  too  long  for  teachers  and 
pupils  to  maintain  an  efficient  standard  of  work  to  the  end.  Six  hours 
a  day  "is  the  usual  limit. 

The  environment  should  be  industrial  and  the  equipment  as  near- 
ly like  that  of  industrial  shops  as  is  possible.  The  course  of  train- 
ing should  be  especially  adapted  to  the  industrial  activities  of  Bridge- 
port, and  should  include  machine  work,  tool  making,  die  work,  sta- 
tionary steam  and  electrical  engineering. 

The  sources  for  securing  shop  work  should  be  as  broad  and 
varied  as  possible.  The  school  should  turn  out  equipment  and  make 
repairs  for  the  school  system.  Besides  this,  each  industrial  depart- 
ment should  manufacture  a  stock  product  of  its  own,  well  adapted 
to  trade  training,  with  the  output  under  control  of  the  school.  It 
should  never  underbid  market  prices. 

Provision  should  be  made  for  those  who  cannot  afford  tp  give 
full  time  to  trade  training.  Some  of  these  can  give  a  day  each  week 
to  improve  their  knowledge  of  the  theoretical  side  of  their  work,  and 
may  be  classed  as  "part  time"  students.  Many  children,  employed 
in  the  industries  who  have  not  completed  their  work  in  the  three 
"R's"  should  attend  this  school  one-half  day  per  week  as  "continua- 
tion" students.  A  third  class,  usually  mechanics,  cannot  give  any 
day  time  to  school  work,  but  would  attend  evening  industrial  courses, 
if  th,ey  were  of  short  duration  and  confined  to  certain  single  phases 
of  the  various  trades.  For  instance,  the  carpentry  department  could 
cffer  courses  to  carpenters  in  roof-framing,  blue  print  reading,  esti- 
mating, etc.,  each  course  to  run  for  six  to  eight  weeks;  the  machine 
department  might  offer  similar  short  courses  on  the  miller,  grinder, 
tkaper,  etc.  In  this  way  those  who  desired  to  improve  themselves 
in  tkeif"  trades  could  secure  at  once  the  line  of  instruction  they 
night  especially  desire. 

72 


The  school  should  have  an  advisory  board,  composed  of  men 
locally  engaged  in  the  lines  of  work  represented  by  the  school,  their 
function  being  to  confer  with  the  directors  and  instructors.  The  cre- 
ation of  such  a  board  is  essential  in  order  that  the  work  of  the  school 
may  be  kept  up  to  date  and  continually  in  touch  with  local  interests. 

Three  classes  or  types  of  instructors  are  needed  in  the  Industrial 
School.  The  shop  instruction  should  be  given  by  trade  teachers  who 
have  had  at  least  five  years'  experience  as  journeymen  workers  in 
the  trade  they  are  to  teach. 

Drawing  and  such  related  subjects  as  shop  mathematics  should 
be  taught  by  technically  trained  teachers  who  are  proficient  in  these 
subjects  and  have  had  some  shop  experience. 

The  academic  work,  including  industrial  history,  industrial  geog- 
raphy and  citizenship,  should  be  taught  by  a  man  with  experience  as 
a  teacher  and  in  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the  school. 

Outline  of  Work. 

SHOP  WORK. 

On   orders  for 

1.  School  departments, — new  equipment,  repairing,  printing 

2.  Special  school  output,  as 

(a)  Automobile  equipment,  jacks,  etc. 

(b)  Machines,   drills,  lathes,   etc. 

(c)  Work  benches 

(d)  Household  cabinet  for  bathrooms,  tools,  etc. 

(e)  Printing,  publication,  etc. 

3.  Outside  trade  work 

THEORY  WORK. 

Estimates  (  On  everything  a  boy 

Specifications  J     makes  just  be- 

Working  drawings  and  sheets          (    fore  he  makes  it. 

of  shop  operations 
Industrial   geography, — sources  of    raw    material,    transportation 

and  industrial  processes 
Industrial  history 
ShO'p  notes  with  English 
Cost  records,  compared  with  estimates 
Citizenship,  civic  duties,  hygiene 

The  Employers  and  the  Schools. 

The  employers  in  charge  of  the  large  plants  have  shown  a 
particular  interest  in  the  problem  of  adjusting  the  school  system  to 
the  special  needs  of  the  city.  They  are  willing  to  give  time  and 
effort  to  assist  in  solving  the  problems,  for  they  have  real  civic  pride. 

The  employers  agree  in  saying  that  the  children  coming  to  them 
should  have  all  the  education  possible  before  they  go  to  work,  and 
that  those  who  go  to  work  early  should  have  at  least  a  thorough 

7:t 


grounding  in  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic.  They  heartily  approve 
the  plan  of  making  this  education  extremely  practical  and  commend 
the  courses  in  household  management  for  girls  and  manual  training 
for  boys.  Factory  owners  do  not  look  to  the  schools  to  give  chil- 
dren the  special  training  needed  for  their  business,  but  say,  "Give 
the  children  good  schooling  and  we  will  teach  them  how  to  do  our 
work."  It  is  only  in  the  skilled  trades,  in  which  the  apprentice  sys- 
tem has  been  abandoned,  that  special  industrial  training  is  a  pre- 
requisite to  employment. 

Practically  all  of  the  employers  who  were  approached  on  the 
public  school  problem  agreed  that  the  Bridgeport  schools  should  be 
well  equipped  and  have  the  most  competent  teachers  available.  They 
did  not  hesitate  to  say  that  Bridgeport  could  afford  to  have  thor- 
oughly modern,  efficient  schools  and  that  if  funds  were  lacking  they 
ought  to  be  appropriated  immediately. 

The  Local  Labor  Union  and  Industrial  Education. 

The  labor  unions  of  Bridgeport  are  not  opposed  to  industrial 
education,  but  hold,  in  accord  with  the  Federation  of  Labor,  that  it 
is  a  necessity.  They  realize  the  present  need  in  this  country  for 
skilled  workers  and  the  advantage  to  the  workers  of  being  highly 
trained.  They  object  to  anything  like  training  specialists  in  the 
schools.  They  wish  the  pupils  to  be  trained  as  all  around  mechanics 
and  to  have  courses  designed  to  give  them  experience  in  all  the  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture,  from  the  raw  material  to  the  finished  product. 
They  contend  that  the  schools  should  not  train  boys  as  operators  for 
special  machines,  since  the  industrial  shops  are  satisfactorily  equipped 
for  that  purpose. 

The  Labor  Unions  do  not  seem  to  be  afraid  of  the  competition  of 
schools  that  do  work  on  a  commercial  basis,  but  realize  that  efficient 
trade  training  must  be  practiced  on  actual  work  and  not  on  a  series 
of  useless  exercises  or  models.  They  insist,  however,  that  this  prac- 
tical work  should  be  secured  at  market  prices,  not  by  underbidding. 

In  the  course  of  this  investigation  the  views  of  employers  of 
labor  and  of  wage-earners  have  been  sought  upon  every  phase  of  the 
local  situation  that  has  a  bearing  upon  industrial  education.  The 
employers  have  shown  sincere  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  school 
system,  and  they  favor  such  a  program  as  will  insure  for  all  children 
as  good  a  general  education  as  possible  before  they  go  to  work.  Many 
interviews  have  been  held  with  the  members  of  the  Central  Labor 
Union  for  the  purpose  of  learning  what  seem  to  be  the  principal 
objections  to  industrial  education  as  they  have  seen  it  in  operation 
in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  to  acquaint  them  with  the  gen- 
eral outline  of  the  program  which  it  is  believed  would  meet  the  situ- 
ation in  Bridgeport. 

Following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  objections  which  the  wage- 
earners  feel  must  be  met  fn  any  proposed  scheme: 

74 


1.  There  must  be  no  interference   with,   or   sacrifice   of,  oppor- 
tunities for  general  education. 

2.  Industrial    education   must   not    be   compulsory   in   the    sense 
ol  prescribing   for  the   individual   the  kind   of  occupation  for   which 
he  must  fit  himself. 

3.  The  children  must  be  protected  Irom   narrow   trade  instruc- 
tion exclusively  in  the  interests  of  employers. 

4.  There  must  be  no  discouragement  of  the  poor  man's  children 
from  higher  professional  and  technical  education. 

5.  The   manufactured   products   must  be   disposed  of   in   such   a 
way  as  to  avoid  unfair  competition  with  the  industries  of  the  com- 
munity. 

6.  The  aim  must  not  be  the  training  of  boys  to  go  into  the  In- 
dustries to  work  for  lower  wages  and  thus  displace  the  workers  now 
employed. 

7.  Parents  must  not  be  deprived  of  the  right  to  control  the  edu- 
cation of  their  own  children,  within  the  limitations  imposed  by  law. 

8.  The  school  day  must  not  be  unreasonably  long. 

9.  The  real  needs  of  the  community  and  of  the  children  should 
determine  the  courses  to  be  offered. 

Summary. 

The  foregoing  discussion  may  be  summarized  thus: 

The  development  of  automatic  machinery  and  the  consequent  in- 
crease of  factories  has  had  much  influence  on  industrial  conditions 
in  Bridgeport. 

The  output  is  of  a  most  varied  character,  but  the  fundamental 
operations  necessary  to  produce  it  are  quite  similar  and  markedly 
mechanical  in  their  nature. 

There  is  a  great  demand  for  unskilled  labor  which  is  supplied  by 
boys  and  girls  who  leave  school  from  the  lower  grades;  in  this  field 
girls  take  higher  rank  than  boys. 

A  better,  but  more  limited  field,  Is  that  offered  by  the  skilled 
trades,  requiring  children  who  are  older  and  of  better  school 
standing. 

The  unskilled  field  offers,  almost  at  once,  all  the  possibilities  to 
be  found  in  it;  the  skilled  field  offers  a  gradually  increasing  develop- 
ment in  capacity  and  compensatipn. 

Another  line  of  work,  open  to  boys,  which  though  not  yet  con- 
sidered a  trade,  is  classed  in  some  lines  as  skilled,  is  that  called 
"assembling  and  adjusting."  The  workers  in  it  need  to  have  their 
training  when  young;  the  work  offers  good  future  prospects. 

Commercial  houses  and  stores  attract  the  boys  and  girls  who 
have  not  been  retarded  in  their  school  work.  These  enter  employ- 
ment from  higher  grades  than  those  entering  shops  and  factories. 

The  Connecticut  law  requires  every  child  under  sixteen,  who 
wishes  to  enter  employment,  to  secure  a  certificate.  To  obtain  a 

75 


certificate,  the  child  must  submit  evidence  that  he  is  at  least  fourteen 
years  of  age,  and  able  to  read  and  write,  and  in  arithmetic  to  per- 
form the  fundamental  operations  with  Whole  numbers  and  fractions. 
The  law  also  permits  school  boards  to  fix  a  grade  which  the  child 
must  complete  before  he  can  obtain  a  certificate. 

To  extend  the  benefits  of  this  system,  the  following  recommenda- 
tions are  made: 

That  the  Bridgeport  'School  Board  establish  a  requirement  that 
every  child  securing  a  certificate  shall  have  completed  the  sixth  grade: 

That  special  classes  be  organized  for  backward  and  foreign  born 
children; 

That  the  law  be  extended  to  cover  groups  of  children,  over  whom 
at1  present  it  has  no  jurisdiction; 

That  the  School  Board  and  the  State  Agent  co-operate  more  ac- 
tively, and  that  a  Vocational  Guidance  department  be  created  to  work 
with  them. 


To  secure  satisfactory  results  in  drawing, 

There  should  be  three  assistant  supervisors  who  can  direct  the 
art  and  hand  work  of  the  first  five  grades; 

The  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  grammar  grades  should  be  on 
a  departmental  basis; 

Drawing  and  handwork  for  both  boys  and  girls  should  be  closely 
allied; 

The  industrial  phases  of  drawing  which  are  at  present  entirely 
lacking  should  be  included  in  the  teaching  of  that  subject; 

A  strong  course  in  mechanical  drawing  should  be  established  in 
the  Industrial  department  of  the  High  School. 


The  State  Trade  School  does  not  meet  the  needs  of  industrial 
education  in  Bridgeport; 

Bridgeport  needs  to  have  an  industrial  school  rather  than  a  trade 
school ; 

This  school  should  be  organized  on  the  "project  scheme"  rather 
than  on  the  plan  of  a  set  program; 

One-half  the  time,  should  be  given  to  theoretical  work;  the  rest 
to  practical  work; 

Six  hours'  work  a  day  is  the  proper  amount  to  expect; 

The  environment  of  the  shops  should  be  industrial; 

The  work  for  the  shops  should  be  secured  from  as  many  source! 
as  possible; 

The  courses  of  training  should  be  especially  adapted  to  the  ax:- 
tivities  carried  on  in  Bridgeport; 

76 


Provision  should  be  made  for  those  who  cannot  attend  the  regu- 
lar sessions,  by  the  formation  of  "part  time,"  "continuation,"  and 
evening  classes; 

An  advisory  board,  composed  of  men  engaged  in  the  trades  taught 
In  the  school,  should  be  organized  to  keep  the  school  work  progressive 
end  in  touch  with  local  interests. 


The  employers  are  sincerely  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the 
school  system; 

They  feel  that  the  children  who  come  to  them  should  have  as 
good  a  general  education  as  possible  before  going  to  work; 

They  strongly  favor  courses  in  'household  management  for 
girls,  and  manual  training  for  boys; 

They  believe  that  Bridgeport  can  afford  to  nave  thoroughly  mod- 
ern, well  equipped  schools,  with  the  best  teachers  available  and  that 
the  necessary  funds  should  be  appropriated  immediately. 


The  labor  unions  in  Bridgeport  recognize  the  necessity  of  indus- 
trial training  to  meet  present  industrial  needs,  and  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  workers; 

They  insist  that  industrial  training  in  the  schools  shall  not  be 
special,  but  general,  and  calculated  to  produce  all-around  mechanics; 

They  oppose  a  nine^hour  day  in  the  schools,  as  strongly  as  in 
the  shops; 

They  do  not  fear  the  competition  of  the  schools  in  industrial 
work,  provided  the  schools  secure  work  at  market  prices. 


IX.    HISTOBY. 

The  leading  purpose  of  the  teaching  of  history  is  essentially 
moral.  Through  'history,  the  learner  gets  some  knowledge  of  him- 
self, of  'his  fellows,  and  of  'his  various  relationships  •  with  his  fel- 
lows. In  other  words,  the  knowledge  which  he  gains  of  the  laws 
Which  govern  bis  own  life  and  the  life  of  other  human  beings,  he 
uses  in  an  eminently  practical  way;  that  is,  in  making  the  social 
adjustments  which  he  must  make  in  co-operating  with  his  fellows. 
And  his  success  in  his  chosen  vocation,  or  as  a  worker  in  any  form 
of  community  service,  depends  upon  the  ability  and  skill  with  which 
he  makes  such  adjustments. 

History  gives  him  invaluable  aid,  not  only  by  furnishing  him 
the  means  of  self-knowledge  and  the  knowledge  of  others,  but  it  al- 
so helps  him  to  understand  the  social  conditions  and  problems  which 
he  must  meet  and  solve  as  a  citizen  and  as  a  man  in  his  later  adult 

77 


life.  For  these  conditions  and  problems  he  can  best  understand 
by  seeing  with  clear  vision  how  they  grew  out  of  the  past,  or  by 
the  study  of  history. 

In  helping  the  child,  through  history,  to  gain  this  invaluable 
insight  into  the  meaning  of  his  own  life  as  related  to  other  lives 
in  various  'forms  of  human  endeavor,  the  teacher's  main  function  is 
that  of  a  life-interpreter.  She  stands  between  the  individual  life 
and  the  life  embodied  in  'the  historical  material,  and  s'hows  the  rela- 
tion between  the  two.  She  and  the  pupils,  therefore,  are  the  main 
factors  in  the  vital  process  of  education.  Books,  maps,  charts,  objects, 
pictures,  stories,  poems,  and  other  forms  of  historical  material  are 
subordinate.  They  are  merely  the  means  which  are  used  in  achiev- 
ing the  great  end  in  view,  —the  attainment  of  knowledge,  power, 
ideals,  and  of  the  ability  to  make  the  proper  social  adjustments. 

In  order  that  such  a  purpose  may  be  achieved  in  any  city  school 
system,  even  to  a  very  limited  extent,  careful  consideration  should 
be  given  to  the  following  elements:  (1)  The  time  devoted  to  the 
subject;  (2)  the  materials  outlined  and  suggested  in  the  course  of 
study;  and  (3)  the  methods  of  using  and  interpreting  such  material 
by  the  teacher. 

According  to  the  daily  program  of  the  Bridgeport  schools, 
the  time  devoted  to  work  in  'history  is  as  follows: 

In  grades  I  and  II.  a  single  period  of  fifteen  minutes  a  week; 
in  grades  III  to  VI,  a  single  period  of  twenty-eight  minutes  a  week; 
and  in  grades  VII  and  VIII,  two  and  one-half  periods  of  one  hour 
each,  per  week.  But  from  many  inquiries  which  were  made,  it 
would  appear  that  the  time  as  scheduled  in  the  program  is  not  used 
in  grades  below  VII  and  VIII.  Practically  all  the  teachers  of  the 
sixth  grade  who  were  asked  about  the  time  devoted  to  history, 
answered  "twenty  minutes  a  week." 

The  material  as  outlined  in  the  course  of  study  is  about  as 
limited  as  the  time  devoted  to  the  subject.  Grades  I  and  II  call 
for  history  on  Monday,  the  material  being  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  teacher;  grade  III,  "Stories  of  American  History;"  grade  IV1, 
"Stories  of  Our  Country,"  and  grade  IV2,  "Noble  Deeds  of  Our 
Fathers ; "  and  grades  V  and  VI,  Eggleston's  "A  First  Book  in  American 
History;"  and  grades  VII  and  VIII,  Eggleston's  "A  School  History 
of  the  United  States." 

This  means  that  the  course  of  study  in  grades  beyond  I  and 
II  consists  of  books  rather  than  a  definite,  concrete  and  sug- 
gestive outline  of  work  to  be  done.  So  far  as  could  be  learned, 
however,  the  books  mentioned  for  grades  III  and  IV  were  not  uni- 
formly read  in  'the  various  schools;  while  in  grades  V  and  VI  only 
a  single  little  book  is  read,  and  that  only  for  some  twenty  minutes 
a  week.  This  little  volume  contains  only  about  two  hundred  pages. 
When  we  call  to  mind  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  boys  and  girls 

78 


in  Bridgeport  leave  school  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade,  and  many 
of  them  by  the  end  of  the  fifth,  we  can  see  how  unfortunate  it  is 
that  so  little  is  done  in  history  in  these  grades. 

Methods  of  Instruction. 

But  there  is  reason  to  doubt  whether  in  these  grades  history 
as  history  is  given  serious  consideration.  In  grades  V  and  VI  the 
lesson  was  invariably  a  reading  lesson,  and  almost  invariably 
nothing  more.  In  one  sixth  grade  room  the  teacher  said  (and  many 
other  teachers  in  this  grade  said  the  same  thing)  that  inasmuch 
as  she  had  only  twenty  minutes  a  week,  she  found  it  very  difficult 
to  get  consecutive  thought  and  sustained  effort  when  working 
under  such  conditions. 

But  she,  herself,  secured  good  results.  In  an  intelligent  and 
stimulating  way  she  appealed  to  the  sympathetic  imagination  of  her 
class,  and  many  of  them,  it  was  evident,  lived  over  again  the  life 
experience  of  the  youthful  Lincoln.  His  self-reliance,  his  hard  life 
in  the  backwoods,  and  his  manliness,  were  all  used  in  an  effective  way 
to  give  a  moral  uplift  to  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  class.  The 
teacher  was  a  life  interpreter,  and  for  the  time  being  many  of  her 
pupils  were  getting  a  splendid  stimulus  from  companionship  with 
a  noble  young  soul.  It  is  in  such  concrete  ways  as  this  that  boys 
and  girls  in  the  elementary  school  get  some  of  the  finest  suggestions 
as  to  the  rich  potentialities  of  their  own  lives;  it  is  in  such  ways 
that  they  come  under  the  inspiration  of  the  great  leaders  of  the  past. 
As  has  been  well  said,  truth  finds  its  supreme  embodiment  in  per- 
sonality, and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  by  the  effective  use  of 
great  lives  as  identified  with  important  events,  and  as  the  centers 
of  important  movements,  that  the  teaching  of  history  can  be  made 
mast  fruitful  in  the  elementary  school. 

But  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  only  a  very  little  teaching  of  this 
kind  was  observed  in  grades  V  and  VI.  As  a  rule,  the  teacher's 
attention  was  fixed  upon  the  proper  pronunciation  and  meaning  of 
the  text,  or  the  mere  mechanics  of  the  reading.  If  a  question  was 
asked,  it  was  quite  as  likely  to  be  on  geography  as  on  history, 
although  only  a  slight  effort  was  made  to  give  the  pupils  a  definite 
notion  of  the  location  of  the  events  narrated.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  history  side  of  the  work  in  grades  V  and  VI  did  not  appear  to  be 
in  the  minds  of  most  of  the  teachers.  Whatever  history  the  children 
got,  therefore,  was  as  a  rule  merely  incidental.  It  was  very  rare  that 
the  teacher  contributed  a  single  fact  or  suggestion  which  did  not 
appear  in  the  text  read  by  the  pupil.  And  this  was  largely  true  of 
the  teachers  in  grades  VII  and  VIII. 

But  there  were  exceptions.  In  one  seventh  grade  room  a  teacher 
of  sympathetic  spirit  sought  to  bring  the  pupils  into  vital  relation 
with  the  life  and  experience  embodied  in  the  text.  She  criticised 
them  for  bookishness, — for  giving  the  language  of  the  text  rather 

79 


than  putting  the  thought  into  their  own  words.  She  used  the  deeds 
and  qualities  of  Washington  to  teach  moral  lessons,  and  she  'held 
up  his  character  as  an  example  for  the  children  to  imitate. 

But,  as  already  suggested,  this  sort  of  teaching  was  rare  in  either 
the  seventh  or  the  eighth  grade.  Much  of  the  work  was  bookish 
and  mechanical.  In  many  cases  the  teacher  'held  the  book  in  her 
hand  and  followed  the  pupils  closely  as  they,  like  phonographs, 
reproduced  the  words  of  the  text.  Very  few  teachers  made  any 
contribution  of  distinct  value  in  the  way  of  illuminating  and  supple- 
menting -the  text  or  of  making  it  more  interesting  and  vivid.  It  was 
merely  a  study  of  the  text,  if  by  study  we  mean  the  attempt  on  the 
part  of  the  pupil  to  learn  all  the  facts  which  the  text  contained.  It 
was  an  extreme  type  of  memoriter  work,  and  from  that  point  of  view 
the  pupils  met  the  standards  set  for  them  remarkably  well  and  in 
a  really  admirable  spirit.  There  was  a  very  pleasant  relation  exist- 
ing between  teachers  and  pupils. 

There  was  some  good  work  observed  in  locating  on  the  maps  the 
events  narrated  in  the  text,  although  such  work  w>as<  not  common. 

There  was  practically  no  evidence  that  the  pupils  'had  read 
anything  whatever  outside  of  their  textbook.  There  were,  'however, 
BO  far  as  could  be  observed,  almost  no  books  in  the  school  for  the 
children  to  read,  even  if  they  'had  been  expected  to  do  so.  This 
condition  of  affairs  is  to  be  deeply  regretted,  for  in  order  to  do 
effective  work,  books  to  supplement  the  text  s'hould  always  be  at  hand. 

By  such  a  method  as  has  just  been  outlined,  the  children  are 
memorizing  the  paragraphs  and  pages  of  a  book,  but  they  are  not 
studying  history  as  the  embodiment  and  interpretation  of  human  life. 

Recommendations. 

All  the  foregoing  points  to  a  few  definite  recommendations. 

In  the  first  place,  more  time  should  be  devoted  to  history  teach- 
ing in  the  first  six  grades. 

In  the  second  place,  the  methods  of  teaching  should!  be  so 
modified  as  to  make  history  a  vital  force  in  the  education  of  the 
pupil.  History  should  be  made  a  humanizing  factor  in  enlarging 
the  intellectual  and  moral  outlook  of  the  learner  and  in  leading 
him  to  understand  more  or  less  clearly  his  opportunities,  privil- 
eges and  responsibilities  as  a  citizen  in  a  democracy  like  ours. 

But  in  order  to  make  history  a  vital  force  in  any  school  system, 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  there  should  be  in  daily  use  something 
more  than  a  single  textbook.  Even  the  scholarly  and  sympathetic 
teacher  cannot  secure  satisfactory  results  without  'having  at  hand 
suitable  tools  and  good  material.  It  is  just  as  important  for  the 
history  department  to  'have  good  equipment,  whether  in  the  grades 
or  in  the  high  school,  as  it  is  that  the  science  teacher  should  have 
a  well  equipped  laboratory.  Maps,  charts,  objects  and  pictures  must 
be  made  use  of,  or  else  the  teaching  is  likely  to  be  mechanical  and 

80 


barren.  The  school  authorities  in  Bridgeport  could  not  easily  make  a 
better  investment  than  by  spending  a  considerable  sum  of  money  in 
supplying  the  teachers  of  history,  especially  in  grades  VII  and  VIII 
and  in  the  'high  school,  with  the  tools  that  would  enable  them  to 
teach  much  more  effectively  than  they  can  under  present  conditions. 

In  the  third  place,  the  course  of  study  in  history  should  be  made 
more  definite  and  concrete.  It  is  not  enough  to  mention  a  few  books, 
or  even  'to  prescribe  them  for  reading  and  study.  Definite  work 
should  be  outlined  and  required  from  the  third  grade  to  the  high 
school. 

Course  of  Study. 

As  a  minimum,  the  following  may  be  suggested: 

In  the  first  two  grades  the  children  should  get  some  impressions 
of  primitive  life — which  may  be  gained  largely  through  simple  oral 
work  about  the  American  Indians —  and  some  appreciation  of  the 
meaning  of  a  few  of  our  public  holidays.  In  the  third  grade  some- 
thing should  be  done  in  a  'definite  way  to  give  the  children  pictures 
of  'historical  scenes  and  persons  in  different  ages,  with  the  emphasis 
upon  those  great  leaders  who  'have  played  a  conspicuous  part  in 
American  history.  In  grades  IV,  V  and  VI,  some  definite  knowledge 
should  be  gained  of  the  leading  events  and  of  the  leading  representa- 
tive men  in  our  national  history.  The  whole  period  of  American 
history  should  at  least  be  touched  upon  before  the  end  of  the 
sixth  grade,  for  it  is  important  to  remember  that  this  Is  a  pivotal 
grade,  because  in  a  manufacturing  city  like  Bridgeport,  it  ends 
the  school  life  of  perhaps  a  half  of  the  boys  and  girls.  In  grades  VII 
and  VIII  a  strong  effort  should  be  made  to  give  the  pupils  a  good 
understanding  of  what  our  history  means  and  of  the  meaning  of  good 
citizenship. 

In  view  of  the  complex  conditions  of  social  and  political  life 
today,  it  seems  unwise  and  unfair  alike  to  the  individual  and  to  the 
community  at  large  to  do  less  than  this.  But  even  more  is  demanded 
if  we  are  to  have  that  high  grade  of  intelligent  citizenship  that  is 
fundamental  to  the  best  interests  of  our  national  life.  Enough  work  in 
general  history  should  be  done  to  make  clear,  though  in  a  very 
simple  way,  how  American  life  had  its  beginnings  and  how  from 
its  very  first  stages  it  was  closely  related  to  the  life  and  thought 
of  the  European  world. 

By  the  use  of  such  a  plan,  American  boys  and  girls  can  be 
given  a  much  more  intelligent  conception  of  the  meaning  of  our 
national  life  than  they  can  acquire  if  they  are  taught  that  American 
history  began  with  the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  in  1492. 
If  the  pupils  of  grade  VI  get  intelligent  impressions  of  the  great  fact 
that  American  life  has  all  along  been  identified  with  the  life  of  the 
world,  they  will  be  more  likely  to  have  a  realizing  sense  of  the 
meaning  of  present  conditions  and  problems  in  our  life  as  a  people 

81 


and  of  the  relation  of  the  Individual  as  a  citizen  and  a  man  to  the 
community  in  meeting  and  solving  such  conditions  and  problems. 
If  'history  is  taught  with  this  aim  in  mind,  it  will  be  given  the  prom- 
inent place  in  the  school  curriculum  which  its  importance  justifies. 

In  the  high  school,  history  is  accorded  a  place  of  prominence, 
especially  in  the  English  course,  where  Greek  and  Roman  history 
.  are  required  in  the  Freshman  year,  Mediaeval  and  Modern  history 
in  the  Sophomore,  English  history  in  the  Junior,  and  United  States 
history  in  the  .Senior  year.  Much  of  the  history  teaching  in  the  high 
school  was  good,  and  some  of  it  was  very  effective.  An  excellent 
lesson  was  observed  in  a  Senior  class  which  was  studying  American 
history.  The  pupils  in  the  class  were  required  to  keep  in  notebooks, 
which  were  handed  in  once  a  week,  a  report  of  from  ten  to  fifteen 
pages  of  reading  in  some  good  authority.  This  work  was  done  with 
evident  intelligence  and  discrimination;  and  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  use  which  the  class  was  making  of  the  outline  maps. 


X.    ENGLISH. 

"Language  and  thought  are  inseparable.  Words  without  thoughts 
are  dead  sounds;  thoughts  without  words  are  nothing  *  *  *  The 
word  is  thought  incarnate."  This  quotation  from  Professor  Max 
Miiller  suggests  two  very  diverge  ways  of  teaching  language.  The 
teacher  may  emphasize  the  vital  qualities  of  oral  and  written  expres- 
sion in  such  a  manner  that  his  pupils  will  feel  that  words  are  alive, 
and  capable  of  expressing  very  clearly  and  forcibly  every  thought 
and  emotion  they  experience;  or  he  may  divorce  language  and  thought 
to  such  an  extent  that  children  will  fail  to  grasp  any  practical  con- 
nection between  the  language  work  of  the  school  and  their  own 
methods  of  self-expression.  The  teacher  following  the  first  method 
will  use  grammar,  punctuation,  phonics,  spelling,  and  penmanship 
merely  as  a  means  to  an  end,  thus  unifying  all  language  work;  the 
teacher  following  the  second  method  will  use  each  as  an  end  in  itself, 
thus  making  language  a  complex  subject  of  diversified  parts  and 
therefore  difiicult  of  mastery.  The  first  method  is  thoroughly 
modern  and  vitalizes  all  language  study;  the  second,  timeworn  and 
deadening  in  its  ineffectiveness. 

"The  Course  of  Study  and  Directions"  for  the  teachers  of  Bridge- 
port divides  the  study  of  English  into  two  parts,  Language  and  Com- 
position. In  the  work  for  the  elementary  school  (grades  I — V) 
punctuation  and  technical  grammar  are  discussed  under  the  head 
of  Language;  talking,  letter  writing,  sentence  and  paragraph  struc- 
ture under  Composition;  while  spelling,  phonics,  and  penmanship 
are  given  separate  places  in  the  program  of  studies.  Thus  there 

82 


is  little  unity  in  this  teaching  scheme,  and  if  the  teachers  follow  the 
daily  program  required  of  everyone  in  the  system,  they  have  little 
opportunity  to  unify  the  work  lor  themselves. 

The  directions  for  the  teaching  of  technical  grammar  through 
the  fourth  grade,  the  grade  from  which  the  children  in  any  noticeable 
degree  begin  to  leave  school,  are  both  simple  and  practical.  The 
oral  and  written  use  of  the  various  parts  of  the  common  irregular 
verbs  and  the  possessive  case  of  nouns  and  all  cases  of  pronouns 
is  the  complete  requirement.  This  should  give  the  teachers  ample 
time  in  which  to  drill  upon  a  few  of  the  most  difficult  forms  of 
English  expression.  The  real  effectiveness  of  this  work,  (however, 
lies  in  its  constant  application  to  every  day  speech.  It  is  not  to  be 
found  in  the  reciting  of  definitions  and  the  giving  of  mere  illustrations 
of  rules,  which  is  the  present  interpretation  of  the  course  by  the 
majority  of  the  Bridgeport  teachers. 

The  composition  course  for  the  first  four  years  is  as  follows: 

Grade      I1     Talking. 

Grade      I2     Sentences  about  things,  events,  or  subjects. 
Words  given  as  a  basis.     Oral  story  telling. 

Grade     II1     Write  sentences  about  pictures  and  from  story. 
Oral  story  telling. 

Grade    II 2    Narratives  of  sentences.    Write  short  story. 

Grade  III1     Combine   sentences.     Sentence   arrangement. 

Grade  III2     Stories   from   suggested  expressions. 

Grade   IV1     Letter  writing.     Paragraph.     Reproductions. 

Grade   IV2    Related  parts  of  sentences.     Character  sketches. 

The  teaching  of  elementary  composition  is  thus  dismissed  with 
the  most  general  directions.  "Talking"  is  about  as  indefinite  a  direc- 
tion as  could  be  imagined.  The  purpose,  the  subject  matter,  the 
method  are  left  to  the  teachers  and  principals  to  determine  largely 
for  themselves.  If  these  directions  were  later  to  be  interpreted  by 
a  competent  supervisor  of  elementary  work,  through  model  lessons 
in  the  class  room  and  by  teachers'  meetings,  some  uniformity  of 
effort  might  be  expected.  But  since  this  careful  supervision  is  lack- 
ing, there  must  be  uncertainty  many  times  on  the  part  of  teachers 
in  following  such  general  directions  'and,  as  a  result,  a  constant  over- 
lapping of  effort.  Whether  the  directions  in  many  cases  refer  to 
oral  or  written  composition,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  The  course 
as  it  stands,  however,  suggests  that  comparatively  little  time  is  given 
to  oral  composition,  i.  e.,  training  in  larger  units  than  the  sentence. 
This,  Indeed,  is  unfortunate  when  it  is  recalled  how  much  oftener  the 
children  speak  than  write.  Daily  practice  in  oral  composition  would 
not  only  of  itself  be  of  immeasurable  value  to  the  pupils  but  it  would 
aid  them,  to  a  marked  degree,  in  all  efforts  at  writing.  Grade  IV1 
seems  to  be  illogically  arranged.  Work  in  reproduction  is  easier 
than  letter-writing,  and  very  naturally  prepares  the  way  for  a  study 
of  the  paragraph.  A  better  order  would  be — reproduction,  paragraph 
study,  letter-writing. 

83 


the  directions  for  the  teaching  of  spelling  in  the  first  four  grades 
are  admirable.  Teachers  are  advised  to  work  with  this  subject  daily 
and  in  all  lessons.  Thus  spelling  is  closely  correlated  with  all  forms 
of  self-expression,  regardless  of  the  subject  matter.  And  if  the  spirit 
of  the  directions  is  adhered  to,  the  words  are  not  isolated  but  studied 
in  relation  to  the  context. 

If  a  study  of  punctuation  can  ever  be  separated  profitably  from 
composition,  the  course  for  Grades  I-V  should  produce  results.  The 
lessons  advised  for  the  various  years  seem  to  correlate  naturally  with 
the  subject  of  composition.  For  instance,  teachers  are  directed  in 
Grade  IV1  to  teach  letter  writing,  paragraph  structure,  and  reproduc- 
tion. In  this  same  year,  they  are  asked  to  give  lessons  in  punctuat- 
ing an  explanatory  modifier,  and  a  phrase  out  of  order.  Better  far, 
however,  would  it  be  to  give  the  same  injunction  here  as  in  the 
course  for  spelling — "Daily  from  all  lessons." 

The  discussion  of  the  course  up  to  this  point  has  not  taken  into 
consideration  the  fact  that  many  of  the  children  of  Bridgeport  are  of 
foreign  parentage  and  'hence  hear  no  English  spoken  at  home.  The 
work  as  outlined  thus  far  has  been  general  and  practical  enough 
so  as  not  to  hamper  any  teacher  who  is  dealing  with  immigrants  or 
the  children  of  immigrants.  When  it  comes  to  the  subject  of  read- 
ing, however,  the  case  is  different.  All  schools  should  not  be  re- 
quired in  these  primary  grades  to  read  the  same  books.  Schools 
like  the  Longfellow,  in  which  97%  of  the  enrollment  is  made  up  of 
Hungarians,  should  be  allowed  to  use  texts  especially  made  to  meet 
their  particular  problems.  Several  series  have  been  prepared  with 
the  idea  of  teaching  English  "by  using  it  in  the  class-room."  The 
lessons  in  these  texts  are  so  arranged  that  "the  pupil's  whole  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  correct  pronunciation;  he  will  infer  the 
rules  of  grammar."  And  the  authors  of  one  series  maintain  further, 
"if  the  pupil  always  talks  and  writes  grammatically  there  will  be 
no  need  of  learning  rules." 

The  use  of  such  specially  prepared  texts,  furthermore,  would  be 
of  great  service  to  the  teacher  of  foreign  born  children  who  have  been 
partially  educated  in  the  old  country.  Children  of  this  class  are 
taught  to  read  English  largely  by  the  phonetic  method. 
It  is  not  at  all  an  uncommon  experience  to  find  these  children  glibly 
calling  words  of  whose  meaning  they  have  no  understanding.  A 
close  union  of  language  and  thought  in  such  classes  would  open  up 
a  new  world  to  these  strangers.  This  -could  be  effected  by  using 
special  texts  and  making  the  language  work  objective.  These  chil- 
dren at  present  are  concerned  more  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of 
arithmetic  than  in  learning  a  new  tongue.  Their  securing  a  working 
certificate  depends  upon  their  ability  to  use  fractions,  not  upon  their 
ability  to  use  English.  If  they  can  read  and  write  in  any  tongue, 
the  present  requirements  of  the  State  law  and  the  Board  of  Education 
are  satisfied.  The  Board  should,  therefore,  since  it  has  the  power, 
make  the  completion  of,  at  first,  the  fifth  and,  later,  the  sixth  grade 

84 


the  minimum  requirement  for  a  working  certificate,  and  should  also, 
during  this  period  of  change,  make  sure  that  these  children  receive 
particular  training  in  English  by  means  of  specially  prepared  texts 
and  at  the  hands  of  teachers  vitally  interested  in  solving  the 
immigrant  problem. 

Thas  far  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  estimate  in  a  broad  way 
the  efficiency  of  the  course  offered  in  English  in  the  elementary 
grades.  Before  passing  to  the  language  work  of  the  "grammar 
school"  it  might  be  well  to  consider  briefly  what  the  purpose  of  such 
work  should  be.  Probably  one  of  the  best  ways  to  discover  this  is  to 
compare  the  grammar  school  teaching  in  language  a  generation  ago 
with  that  of  today.  The  emphasis  according  to  the  old  ideal  was 
placed  upon  the  study  of  technical  grammar,  hence  the  name  "gram- 
mar" school.  A  child's  power  to  express  himself  clearly  and  forcibly 
was  determined  largely  by  'his  ability  to  parse,  conjugate,  or  to 
analyze  isolated  sentences  composed  by  others.  Occasionally,  he 
was  asked  to  write  a  composition.  This  lie  did  blindly,  imitating,  no 
doubt,  some  story  he  had  read  in  his  reader.  When  he  recited  in  his- 
tory or  geography,  he  answered  the  teacher's  questions,  aiming  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  express  himself  in  the  language  of  the  text. 
Rarely,  if  ever,  he  considered  these  subjects  from  any  other  stand- 
point than  the  mastery  of  facts.  He  learned  his  spelling  mainly 
from  the  spelling  book  and  -the  words  he  found  there  he  spelled  orally 
or  in  long  lists.  Punctuation,  if  acquired  at  all,  he  learned  through 
the  memorizing  of  rules.  The  old  grammar  school  ideal  was,  broadly 
speaking,  a  knowledge  of  facts.  But  today  in  the  most  advanced  school 
systems,  the  child  is  trained  according  to  a  very  different  ideal.  He 
learns  technical  grammar  and  he  analyzes  as  of  old,  but  he  does 
these  things  that  he  may  know  how  to  eradicate  faults  in  his  com- 
positions. In  some  school  systems  this  correlating  of  technical 
grammar  with  composition  is  so  close  that  'the  errors  the  child 
makes  determine  largely  the  technical  grammar  he  is  to  study. 
In  other  words,  he  is  'tested  in  a  knowledge  of  grammar  by  his  ability 
to  write  and  speak  correctly.  He  expresses  himself  daily  in  email 
units  at  his  seat  or  at  the  board.  These  compositions  are  criticised 
by  the  pupils  and  teachers  and  form  the  basis  of  the  next  day's 
work  in  language  drill.  When  he  recites  in  geography  or  history, 
he  talks  from  outlines,  aiming  to  give  a  connected  talk  upon  some 
division  of  the  subject  under  discussion.  He  learns  to  spell  from 
lists  of  words  selected  from  his  various  lessons,  from  words  mis- 
spelled in  his  own  compositions,  and  from  spellers  which  group 
troublesome  words  under  rules  or  root  stems.  He  is  trained  to  choose  in- 
telligently the  punctuation  marks  that  will  best  suit  his  own  definite 
purpose.  He  reads  many  readers  and  in  the  last  years  of  his  course 
he  studies  several  masterpieces  suited  to  his  own  enjoyment  and  his 
unconscious  imitation.  Thus  his  daily  training  is  entirely  directed 
toward  one  common  end — a  clear,  forceful,  and  easy  expression 
of  his  own  or  another's -thoughts. 

The  course  of  study  in  Englisk  ofjthe  Bridgeport  grammar- grades 

85 


suggests  at  present,  a  commingling  of  these  two  ideals.  Technical 
grammar  as  a  distinct  study  is  rigidly  insisted  upon.  Promotion  from 
grade  to  grade  depends  in  many  cases  upon  the  pupil's  knowledge 
of  definitions,  his  ability  to  conjugate,  parse,  and  analyze.  Punctua- 
tion is  considered  as  an  independent  study  to  be  finished  by  the  end 
of  the  fifth  grade  with  reviews  through  the  eighth.  Spelling  is 
taught  from  a  book  throughout  the  four  years  with  the  injunction 
that  there  be  "One  lesson  each  week  made  from  other  lessons." 
Instruction  in  composition,  both  written  and  oral,  is  given,  but,  as  a 
subject,  it  is  not  considered  as  important  as  grammar.  This  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  it  is  assigned  less  time  than  technical  gram- 
mar;* it  does  not  affect  materially  the  promotion  of  a  child;  and, 
after  the  fifth  grade,  it  may  be  taught  largely  as  the  principal  and 
teachers  of  a  school  see  fit.  Reading  is  required  for  half  an  hour  daily 
in  all  grammar  grades.  In  grades  seven  and  eight,  the  classics 
suggested  for  study  are,  for  the  greater  part,  those  which  should 
interest  the  child  and  aid  him  in  the  development  of  his  mode  of 
expression. 

To  determine  the  effectiveness  of  the  foregoing  course  of  study, 
two  examinations  were  given,  one  in  the  sixth  grade  (VI2) ;  the  other 
in  the  eighth.  The  former  was  to  test  the  efficiency  of  the  work 
midway  between  the  point  of  greatest  elimination  of  students  and  the 
end  of  the  course;  the  latter  to  judge  the  work  of  those  who  had 
had  advantages  of  the  complete  course. 

In  both  of  these  examinations,  each  pupil  was  asked  to  write  an 
original  composition,1  and  a  reproduction.2 

xln  the  sixth  grade,  he  was  asked  to  write  upon  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects: 

Stalled  in  a  snow  storm  A  rainy   day  at  camp 

Making  a  snow  fort  Why  I  am  a  scout 

A  circus  parade  Caught  in  a  thunder  storm 

Feeding   the    monkeys 

In  the  eighth  grade,  upon  one  of  the  following  subjects: 

Locked  out!  An  exciting  bicycle  ride 

Dead  broke!  The  study  I  like  best 

An  April  fool  joke  The  games  I  like  best 

Main  street  on  election  night  A  narrow  escape  from 

drowning 
A  daring  feat  An  encounter  with  an  angry 

dog 

An  interesting  vaudeville  act  A  winter  evening  at  home 

Lost  in  the  woods  An   amusing   occurrence   at 

school 

My  room  after  a  hurried  dressing     How  to  make  a  fire  at  camp 
2In  the  sixth,   he  was   required   to  reproduce  Calvin   C.   Colton'4, 
"A  Leap  for  Life." 

In  the  eighth,  he  was  required  to  reproduce  an  adaptation  of 
Washington  Irving's  "The  Adventure  of  My  Aunt." 

*  Grammar  is  given  1*£  hours  a  week;  composition,  only  1  hour. 

86 


The  work  of  examining  the  sixth  grade  papers  was  entrusted 
to  two  English  teachers,  one  a  teacher  of  the  grades,  the  other 
with  both  graded  and  high  school  experience.  The  eighth  grade 
papers  were  criticised  by  a  committee  composed  of  the  two  teachers 
that  had  had  charge  of  the  sixth  grade  work,  with  the  addition  of 
another  teacher  of  the  grades,  and  two  more  high  school  English 
teachers.  The  same  plan  virtually  was  carried  out  in  the  exam- 
ination of  the  two  grades  of  work.  On  the  first  day,  the  commit- 
tee worked  together,  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform  standard  of 
criticism.  It  was  decided  that  all  papers  should  be  judged  from 
two  points  of  view — originality  of  expression,  and  mechanical  cor- 
rectness. With  this  standard  as  a  guide,  the  papers  of  a  school 
were  read  with  the  idea  of  securing  general  impressions  of  the  work 
of  a  class,  rather  than  of  individuals.  To  effect  this  plan,  the 
compositions,  while  being  read,  were  classified  in  five  groups:  In 
the  first  were  the  "exceptional"  or  A  papers;  in  the  second,  the 
"strong"  or  B  papers;  in  the  third,  the  "average"  or  C  papers;  in 
the  fourth,  the  "weak"  or  D  papers;  and  in  the  fifth  the  "impossible" 
or  E  papers.  Compositions  placed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  groups 
showed  that  the  students  had  little  or  no  power  of  self-expression. 

In  comparing  the  following  results,  it  should  constantly  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  sixth  grade,  as  far  as  Bridgeport  is  con- 
cerned, represents  a  more  normal  condition  of  what  might  be  ex- 
pected of  public  school  training  than  the  eighth.  The  former  grade, 
broadly  speaking,  includes  nearly  every  class  of  children  that  might 
hope  to  receive  an  efficient,  practical  training  in  English;  the  latter 
grade,  a  limited  class,  as  it  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  Table  2, 
(Distribution  of  Pupils  by  Ages  and  Grades)  that  there  is  loss  of 
over  fifty  per  cent  in  enrollment  in  the  eighth,  as  compared  with  the 
sixth  grade.  The  eighth  grade  pupils  have  had,  moreover,  the  advan- 
tage of  fairly  prosperous  surroundings,  and  a  two-years'  study  of 
classics,  easy  of  imitation.  Another  fact  should  be  remembered: 
ag  there  are  no  eighth  grade  classes  in  the  Longfellow  and  Walters- 
ville  schools,  where  the  majority  of  the  foreign  children  are  trained, 
the  results  of  these  schools  are  not  included  in  the  estimate  of  the 
work  of  the  higher  grade.  This,  very  naturally,  gives  another  ad- 
vantage to  the  eighth  grade  results.  A  tabulated  report  of  the  results 
of  the  examinations  follows.  The  figures  refer  to  the  combined  re- 
sults of  the  original  compositions  and  reproductions. 

Tables  1  and  2  give  the  general  results  of  this  examination. 
Both  original  compositions  and  reproductions  are  included  in  each 
table. 


87 


Results  of  the  Examination  in  English. 

TABLE  1 

Sixth  Grade 

Classification                Number  Percentage  of  the  Whole 

A   or  exceptional  papers            15  2.8 

B  or  strong  papers                        96  18.2 

C  or  average  papers                   225  42.7 

D  or  weak  papers                         140  26.6 

E  or  impossible  papers                 51  9.6 

Total  527  99.9 
TABLE  2 

Eighth  Grade 

Classification  Number            Percentage  of  the  whole 

A  or  exceptional  papers  26                                 4. 

B  or  strong  papers  197  30.2 

C  'or   average   papers  315  48.2 

D  or  weak  papers  95  14.5 

E  or  impossible  papers  19                                2.9 

Total  652  99.8 

Connecting  the  facts  shown  in  these  tables  with  the  discussion 
of  the  relative  emphasis  placed  upon  the  teaching  of  technical  gram- 
mar as  compared  with  composition,  it  is  apparent  that  the  present 
course  is  not  producing  satisfactory  results.  Taking  first  the  figures 
of  the  table  for  the  sixth  grade,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  over  forty  per 
cent,  display  only  average  ability,  while  over  thirty-three  and  a  third 
per  cent,  'have  failed  to  secure  any  practical  results  whatsoever.  When 
it  is  realized  that  over  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  children  never  reach 
the  eighth  grade,  that  thirty  and  one-'half  per  cent,  leave  at  the  end 
of  the  fourth  grade,  and  thirty-one  and  eight-tenths  per  cent,  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth,  these  figures  become  startling.  A  consideration  of 
them,  moreover,  in  their  immediate  bearing  upon  the  examination 
shows  that  over  one-third  of  these  sixth  grade  children  knew  so  little 
about  the  ordinary  principles  of  composition  that  their  papers  were 
considered  below  a  passing  grade. 

In  reviewing  the  causes  ot  these  failures,  the  sixth  grade  papers 
will  still  be  considered  and,  later,  those  of  the  eighth.  An  illogical 
arrangement  of  sentences  (the  a  frequent  cause  of  poor  paragraph 
structure)  was  the  determining  factor  in  the  failure  of  127  papers; 
weak  sentence, structure,  of  117  papers;  no  knowledge  of  punctuation, 
of  38;  and  poor  spelling,  of  31. 

What  do  these  figures  show?  The  study  of  technical  grammar 
s'hould,  if  it  has  any  value  at  all,  accomplish  two  things  at  least: — 
it  should  aid  the  students  in  the  construction  of  their  sentences,  and 
should  develop  their  logical  faculty.  Inasmuch  as  the  greatest  causes 
of  failure  in  this  grade  were  due  to  an  inability  to  construct  coher- 
ent sentences  and  arrange  sentence  units,  it  is  evident  that  the  con- 
stant drill  upon  the  technical  side  of  language  has  not  produced 

88 


practical  results  for  a  large  'proportion  of  the  pupils.  The  figures 
iii  punctuation,  moreover,  do  not  reveal  the  exact  condition  of  affairs, 
as  no  papers  were  given  a  failing  grade  on  the  sole  ground 
of  lack  of  knowledge  in  this  subject.  The  work  in  punctuation 
throughout  the  sixth  grade  was  exceedingly  weak.  Spelling,  how- 
ever, except  on  the  part  of  foreigners,  showed  ctinsiderable  strength. 
The  papers  as  a  whole  were  neat,  but  the  ink,  in  many  cases,  was 
so  thin  that  the  examining  committee  had  difficulty  in  reading  the 
papers.  It  is  easy  to  foresee  the  inevitable  effect  this  will  liave  upon 
the  eyesight  of  the  children  if  better  ink  is  not  supplied. 

Turning  now  to  the  subject  of  the  general  organization  of  ma- 
terial, the  sixth  grade  papers  indicated  a  very  meagre  training  In 
reproducing  the  thoughts  of  others.  As  has  been  said  elsewhere, 
this  power  can  be  gained  in  the  geograp'hy,  history,  and  science  les- 
sons, as  well  as  in  the  composition  classes.  That  it  should  be  culti- 
vated there  can  be  no  doubt.  Reproduction  work  is  of  great  assist- 
ance in  training  children  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  ideas.  It 
should  give  them  judgment  in  deciding  What  is  of  importance,  and 
what  is  not.  It  should  aid  them  naturally,  in  an  unconscious  form- 
ing of  their  own  power  of  self-expression,  and,  finally,  it  should  be 
of  great  assistance  in  enlarging  their  vocabularies.  The  sixth  grade 
papers  showed  that  the  children  had  had  little  training  in  this  kind 
of  composition  work,  for  insignificant  details  were  given  the  same 
importance  as  leading  ideas.  Moreover,  the  poem  in  many  instances, 
was  reproduced  in  a  peculiar  kind  of  prose  which  showed  that  the 
children  were  trying  to  reproduce  the  story  in  the  poetic  -form  of 
the  original.  The  following  table  will  show  how  muc'h  greater  was 
the  percentage  of  failures  in  reproduction  work  than  in  the  writing 
of  original  compositions: 

TABLE  3 

Sixth  Grade 

Original  Compositions 

Classification  of  mark.         -Number  Percentage 

A  .8  3.0 

B  59  22.4 

C  136  51.7 

D  43  16.3 

E  17  6.4 


Total 

Classification  of  mark. 
A 
B 
C 
D 
E 

Total 


263 

99.8 

ReproductioMS 

Number 

Percentage 

7 

2.6 

37 

14.0 

89 

33.8 

97 

36.7 

34 

12.8 

264 


99.9 


8t 


In  the  original  work,  the  sixth  grade  children  displayed  consid- 
erable skill  in  story-telling.  The  subjects  assigned  were  such  as 
might  naturally  be  expected  to  interest  them.  The  exercise  was 
given  to  test  their  powers  of  imagination,  of  observation,  and  of  rea- 
soning. Such  an  exercise  should  reveal,  furthermore,  their  ability  to 
plan,  (i.  e.,  power  to  select  and  arrange  material  with  a  given  pur- 
pose in  mind;)  their  individuality  of  expression  and  the  extent  of 
their  vocabularies.  The  papers  proved  that  the  children  had  a  good 
sense  of  the  value  of  words.  In  many  instances  words  and  expres- 
sion were  selected,  exceptionally  well  suited  to  express  the  ideas 
the  pupils  had  in  mind.  In  writing  upon  subjects  like  "A  circus  parade" 
or  "Caught  in  a  thunder  storm"  the  compositions  showed  spon- 
taneity and  individuality.  At  the  same  time,  however,  many  of  these 
original  narratives  revealed  a  poor  sense  of  proportion,  and  little 
ability  to  keep  to  one  subject.  The  pupils  had  written  apparently 
without  outlining  their  stories  ahead  of  time.  Planning  is  a  neces- 
sary preparation  for  all  thought  work  and,  if  the  pupils  are  ever  to 
be  trained  to  speak  and  write  correctly,  this  essential  form  of  com- 
position study  must  always  precede  every  oral  and  written  exercise. 

The  results  of  the  eighth  grade  examinations  can  be  considered 
in  a  more  general  manner  inasmuch  as  they  affect,  at  present,  the 
teaching  of  such  a  small  percentage  of  the  total  school  enrollment. 
By  examining  Table  1  again,  it  is  seen  that  about  two-sixths  are 
doing  strong  or  exceptional  work,  about  three-sixths  average  or  pass- 
ing work  and  one-sixth  weak  or  impossible  work.  Many  of  the  weak- 
nesses characteristic  of  the  sixth  grade  work  are  apparently  cor- 
rected by  the  time  the  children  reach  the  eighth  grade.  The  sen- 
tence structure  is  good,  and  the  relating  of  sentences  into  fairly-well 
constructed  paragraphs  is  rather  remarkable  for  children  of  this  age. 
The  spelling,  considering  the  amount  of  time  given  to  the  subject,1  is 
not  as  good  in  this  grade  as  might  be  expected.  The  children  spelled 
the  words  dictated2  to  them  better  than  those  they  used  in  their  own 
compositions.  But  the  real  value  of  the  study  of  spelling  lies,  it 
must  be  remembered,  not  in  an  ability  to  spell  isolated  words,  but  in 
an  ability  to  spell  words  as  they  are  needed  to  express  related  ideas. 
Punctuation  here,  as  in  the  sixth  grade,  is  very  faulty.  The  children, 
judging  from  the  directions  given  in  the  Course  of  Study,  may  know 
the  rules,  but,  if  they  do,  they  rarely,  if  ever,  apply  them. 

Leaving  this  technical  side  of  composition  work  for  a  considera- 
tion of  the  manner  of  telling  both  the  original  stories  and  the  repro- 
ductions, it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  students  felt  a  keen  interest 
in  the  subjects  assigned.  This  interest  is  often  manifested  by  the 
original  and  spontaneous  way  the  children  express  themselves.  In 
such  compositions — and  they  are  generally  the  original  stories — 

1  It  should  be  remembered  that  spelling  'has  been  taught  for  15 
minutes  each  day,  for  five  days  in  a  week,  throughout  the  course. 

2  Fifty  words  were  dictated,  as  a  part  of  the  examination. 

90 


mechanical  difficulties  seem  to  drop  away,  leaving  the  child  free  to 
express  himself  in  an  unconscious  manner.  But  in  the  general  or- 
ganization of  the  eighth  grade  papers,  the  same  weaknesses  are  ap- 
parent as  in  the  sixth.  Table  4  which  follows  shows  that  the  repro- 
duction work  of  this  grade  proved,  as  in  the  sixth,  to  be  a  more  diffi- 
cult exercise  than  the  writing  of  an  original  composition. 

TABLE  4 
Eighth  Grade 
Original  Compositions 

Classification                            Number  Percentage 

A                                          13  4.0 

B   .                                     115  35.0 

C                                          152  46.3 

D                                           41  12.5 

E                                              7  2.1 


Total 


Classification 
A 
B 
C 
D 
E 


328 

Reproductions 

Number 
13 
82 
163 
54 
12 


99.9 


Percentage 

4.0 
25.3 
50.3 
16.6 

3.6 


Total  324  99.8 

The  vocabulary  of  Irving,  although  in  this  story1  it  is  by  no  means 
difficult,  gave  no  end  of  trouble.  The  children,  moreover,  were  often 
unable  to  see  the  point  of  the  tale,  and  because  of  this  they  did  not 
select  and  arrange  their  material  in  such  a  manner  as  to  reproduce 
the  story  effectively  and  completely.  The  original  compositions  of 
this  grade  like  those  of  the  sixth,  but  to  a  less  degree,  show  the  same 
faulty  sense  of  proportion  and  the  same  inability  to  keep  to  the  sub- 
ject. These  difficulties,  in  both  reproduction  and  original  composi- 
tion are  largely  matters  of  poor  planning  and  should  be  corrected 
by  requiring  outlines  to  be  made  constantly  for  all  oral  and  written 
work.  This  plan  work  would  not  only  eradicate  the  faulty  sense  of 
proportion  and  the  lack  of  judgment  as  to  the  relative  value  of  de- 
tails now  generally  characteristic  of  the  written  composition  work, 
but  it  would  also  aid  the  oral  composition  work  which  is  already  being 
carried  on  most  successfully  in  some  Bridgeport  schools.  * 

*  In  one  eighth  grade  in  which  two  exercises  a  week  are  regularly 
given  to  oral  composition  unusual  results  in  the  compositions  were 
shown.  Not  a  single  paper  in  the  original  work  of  this  school  was 
considered  below  the  passing  grade. 

1  See  note,  page  86. 


91 


To  sum  up  the  work  of  the  lower  grades  (Grades  I-V)  in  language: 

Findings : 

1.  "Language"  is  divided  into  a  study  of  "capitals  and  marks" 
and  "technical  forms."    Each  is  considered  as  a  separate  study.    The 
work  in  punctuation   is  that  which   is   usually  found  in   elementary 
schools. 

2.  The  course  of  study  for  teaching  composition  is  very  general 
and   indefinite.     It   includes   both   oral    and   written   expression   with 
emphasis  upon  the  latter. 

3.  Spelling  is  emphasized  both  as  a  separate  subject  and  in  cor- 
relation with  all  written  work. 

4.  Reading  is  taught  in  a  uniform  manner  throughout  the  sys- 
tem.   The  same  texts  are  used  in  the  schools  composed  of  foreigners 
as  in  those  attended  by  Americans.    The  method  of  teaching  reading 
in  all  schools  is,  for  the  greater  part,  based  upon  a  knowledge  and 
use  of  phonetics.     Objective  teaching  is  thus  neglected. 

5.  No   requirement  in  reading  and   writing   English  is  made    of 
children  desiring  working  certificates. 

Recommendations.     (Grades  I-V) 

1.  Unify  all  teaching  with  English  as  a  basis.    Consider  spelling, 
punctuation,  grammar,  and  penmanship  not  as  subjects  per  se  but  as 
aids  to   all  written  and  oral   expression.     Teach  geography,  history, 
physiology,  and  nature  work  ("General  Lessons")  as  a  foundation  for 
the  expression  of  the  thoughts  and  observations  of  the  children.     To 
do  this,  make  all  of  this  elementary  work  objective. 

2.  Emphasize   oral  composition.     Train   the   children,   especially 
In  the  science  lessons,  to  talk  in  paragraph  units.     This  is  easy  of 
accomplishment  if  the  children  work  directly  with  the  objects  they 
are  studying.     Use  this  oral  work  as  an  immediate  preparation  for 
written  .composition.     Have   the   children   write   daily   at   the   board. 
Employ  for  this  work  pupil  and  teacher  criticism  of  a  constructive 
kind. 

3.  Give  language  lessons  preparatory  to   reading.     Depend  less 
upon  phonetics  and  more  upon  connecting  the  printed  text  with  the 
thought  to  be  conveyed  by  the  reader. 

4.  To  secure  recommendations  1,  2,  and  3,  revise  the  course  of 
study,  making  it  definite  and  yet  flexible.    Appoint,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested  elsewhere,   a   supervisor  to   assist   the   Superintendent.     This 
supervisor,  on  account  of  her  expert  training,  could  give  model  les- 
sons in  composition  in  the  various  class  rooms  and  she  could  also 
conduct  teachers'  meetings  for  the  purpose  of  interpreting  the  course, 
discussing  methods  and  assisting  the  teachers  generally  in  keeping  th« 
work  up  to  a  high  standard  of  efficiency. 

92 


5.  Have  teachers  expressly  trained  for  teaching   foreigners,   in 
charge   of  the  classes  in   the   Waltersville   and   Longfellow   schools. 
Use  in  these  schools,  texts  specially  prepared  for  foreigners. 

6.  The  Board  of  Education,  since  it  has  the  power,  should  make 
the  completion  of  at  first,  the  fifth  and,  later,  the  sixth  grade,  the 
minimum  requirement  for  a  working  certificate.     During  this  period 
of  change,  it  should  make  sure  that  children  partially  trained  in  the 
old  country  should  receive  particular  training  in  English  by  means 
of  specially  prepared  texts  and  at  the  hands  of  teachers  interested 
in  solving  the,  Immigrant  problem. 

To  sum  up  the  work  of  the  grammar  grades,  in  language: 

Findings: 

1.  Technical  grammar  is  rigidly  insisted  upon.     In  Bridgeport, 
this  means  a  knowledge  of  definitions  and  the  ability  to  conjugate, 
parse,  and  analyze.    A  pupil's  proficiency  in  this  respect  determines 
his  promotion  from  grade  to  grade  so  far  as  his  language  work  is 
concerned.     The  method  of  teaching  used,  and  the  results  obtained 
show  that  grammar  is  not  taught  as  a  means  of  self-expression.    See 
Tables  1  and  2. 

2.  Punctuation  is  considered  an  independent  study,  to  be  finished 
by  the  end  of  the  fifth  grade,  with  reviews  through  the  eighth.    The 
papers   show  that  the  pupils  have  little,  if  any,  working  knowledge 
of  this  subject. 

3.  Spelling  is  taught  four  days  in  a  week,  throughout  the  course, 
from  a  book.     This  work  is  supplemented  by  one  lesson  each  week 
made  from  other  lessons. 

4.  Reading  is  taught  daily,  and,  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades, 
classics  suited  to  children  and  easy  of  imitation  are  studied. 

5.  Composition,  both  oral  and  written,  is  taught,  but  is  not  given 
the  same  amount  of  emphasis  as  is  technical  grammar.    Composition 
is  given   a  half-hour  twice   a  week;    technical   grammar,    the    same 
length  of  time,  three  times  a  week.    After  the  fifth  grade,  composition 
may  be  taught  as  the  principals  and  teachers  see  fit 

The  results  of  the  composition  test  show: 

A.    In  the  sixth  grade,  containing  a  fairly  general  representation  of 
school  children, 

(a)  About  21%  are  doing  strong  or  exceptional  work; 

(b)  Over  40%    display  only  average  ability; 

(c)  Over  33  J%   have  failed  to  secure  any  practical  results; 

(d)  The  failures  are  due,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  to  an  illogical 

arrangement  of  ideas,  and  to  weak  sentence  structure;  in 
a  few  cases,  to  poor  punctuation  and  spelling; 


(e)  Many  papers  fail  to  show  any  plan  ability.     In  the  original 

work,  this  destroys  the  proportion  of  the  parts  to  the 
whole;  in  the  reproduction  work,  the  differentiation  of 
the  value  of  details  to  bring  out  effectively  the  author's 
purpose; 

(f)  The  work  in  original  composition,  which  is  better  than  that 

in  reproduction,  shows  a  good  sense  of  the  value  of 
words,  spontaneity,  and  individuality  of  expression. 

B.    In  the  eighth  grade,  representing  a  limited  class, 

(a)  34%   are  doing  exceptional  or  strong  work; 

(b)  48%  are  doing  average  work; 

(c)  17%   are  failing. 

(d)  In  the  majority  of  cases  in  this  grade,  the  failures  are  due 

to  a  poor  selection  of  details;  to  a  lack  of  proportion  of 
the  parts;  in  a  word,  to  an  inability  to  realize  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  various  thoughts  with  which  the 
pupils  are  dealing. 

Although  the  sentence  and  paragraph  structure  is 
better  in  this  grade  than  in  the  sixth,  many  failures  are 
due  to  a  lack  of  feeling  for  these  divisions  of  thought. 
The  spelling  of  this  grade,  considering  the  formal  drills 
given  in  the  subject,  is  weak.  The  punctuation  in  the  pa- 
pers shows  gross  ignorance  of  that  subject. 

(e)  Children  trained  in  oral  composition  write  with  ease  and 

fluency.  In  one  school  where  this  kind  of  composition  is 
emphasized,  the  results  in  the  original  work  are  excep- 
tional. 

Recommendations:   (Grades  VI- VIII) 

1.  Unify  all  teaching  with  English  as  a  basis.     Emphasize  com- 
position work,  both  oral  and  written.     Teach  technical  grammar  as 
an  aid  to  composition.     Give  less  attention  to  definitions;    more  to 
that   kind  of  grammar   which   will   help  the   children   overcome   ob- 
stacles to  self-expression.     Discontinue  using  a  knowledge  of  tech- 
nical grammar  as  a  basis  of  promotion. 

2.  Teach  punctuation  daily,  as  the  work  of  the  children  in  com- 
position,  geography,   history,    physiology,   shows   the   need.     Develop 
and  use  rules  in  this  way. 

3.  Teach  spelling  daily  in  all  work.    Select  words  from  reading, 
written  lessons,  and  from  spellers  which  group  troublesome  words 
under  rules.     Develop  the  rules  before  giving  the  words.     Use  con- 
stantly all  such  new  words. 

4.  Study  classics  suited  to  children  as  early  as  the  sixth  grade. 

5.  Outline  in  detail  the  course  of  study  in  composition  for  the 
use  of  teachers. 

94 


6.  Increase  the  amount  of  time  given  to  composition  by  decreasing 
the  requirement  in  technical  grammar. 

7.  Have  children  write  often  at  the  board.     Continue  to  criticise 
constructively  all  pupil  effort  with  a  view  to  developing  a  feeling  for 
the  structure  of  the  sentence  and   paragraph. 

8.  Reproduce  constantly  in  all  grammar  grades  fine  units  of  liter- 
ature.   Before  doing  this  work,  make  a  careful  plan  of  the  selection. 
Write  always  from  outlines.    Study  the  choice  of  words  made  by  the 
author  before  attempting  the  reproduction.     Have  some  of  this  work 
oral,  some  written. 

9.  Write  original  compositions  as   often  as  possible   in  all  grades. 
Plan  every  such  composition  before  writing.     Emphasize  the  relative 
value  of  ideas  in  this  preliminary  work.     Have  several  children  give 
their  compositions  orally,  before  the  class  writes.    Use  new  subjects 
for  each  composition  exercise,  in  order  not  to  dull  the  interest  of 
the  pupils.     Keep  this  work  as  far  as  possible  close  to  the  lives  of 
the  children. 


95 


XI. 

REPORT  ON  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  THE  WORK  IN  ARITHMETIC 
DONE  BY  PUPILS  IN  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  BRIDGEPORT,  CONN. 


In  estimating  the  efficiency  of  the  work  in  arithmetic  in  the 
Bridgeport  schools,  the  advanced  division  of  the  sixth  grade  was  se- 
lected for  the  application  of  a  standard  test  in  fundamental  operations 
and  in  reasoning  which  had  previously  been  used  in  twenty-six  other 
systems.  In  eVery  room  the  tests  were  given  personally  by  the  out- 
side examiners  in  accordance  with  the  exact  procedure  followed  else- 
where. 

Bridgeport's  results  in  the  test  in  fundamentals  were  highest  of 
all;  in  reasoning  they  were  less  favorable,  though  equal  to  the  av- 
erage attained  by  classes  elsewhere. 

It  is  not  known  how  many  pupils  had  been  eliminated  in  each  or 
any  of  these  twenty-six  other  systems  before  reaching  the  grade  in 
which  the  tests  were  applied.  Any  comparison  of  results  in  differ- 
ent school  systems,  to  be  complete,  should  take  this  factor  into  ac- 
count, for  obviously  that  system  in  which  elimination  has  set  in 
earliest  and  been  most  severe  would  have  a  decided  advantage  over 
a  system  which  has  held  its  retarded  children  through  the  grade 
tested,  because  in  the  former  case  only  the  brightest  children  would 
remain  to  be  tested.  Those  tested  would  be  a  highly  selected  class. 
In  Bridgeport,.  51%  of  the  pupils  are  eliminated  before  they  reach 
the  sixth  grade  (Table  I.) 

A  detailed  account  of  the  test  follows: 

MEASUREMENT  OP  THE  ARITHMETICAL  ABILITIES  OP  THREE 
HUNDRED  AND  TWENTY  PUPILS  IN  TEN  CLASSES,  SIXTH2 
GRADE  (HIGH  SIXTH),  SCHOOLS  OF  BRIDGEPORT,  CONN., 
BY  RESULTS  OBTAINED  PROM  THE  STONE  TEST. 

The  measurement  of  the  arithmetical  achievements  of  the  schools 
of  Bridgeport  is  based  upon  the  work  of  all  the  pupils  in  the  sixth2 
classes  present  at  the  time  the  tests  were  given,  as  follows: 

School.  No.   of  pupils 

1  17 

3  51 

5  35 

6  45 
10  37 
14,  Room  13  44 
14,  Room  14  34 

17  37 

18  7 

19  13  =  320 

96 


In  order  that  the  comparison  might  be  made  upon  a  more  equit- 
able basis,  the  papers  from  schools  Nos.  1,  18,  and  19,  were  combined, 
thus  forming  a  class  of  37  pupils  in  place  of  three  classes  of  the 
smaller  numbers. 

Before  any  scoring  was  done,  each  class  was  designated  by  a 
Roman  numeral  from  I  to  VIII,  inclusive;  and  it  was  determined  to 
give  the  composite  score  of  the  city  as  a  unit,  320  pupils,  the  designa- 
tion "Bridgeport."  These  designations  will  identify  the  classes  and 
the  city  throughout  this  entire  study.  It  is  thus  seen  that  no  signifi- 
cance can  attach  to  the  order  in  which  these  numerals  are  assigned. 
The  order  of  achievement  is  shown  by  the  serial  order  as  arranged 
in  each  table,  starting  with  the  lowest  at  the  top  and  advancing  in 
order  of  achievement  to  the  highest  at  the  bottom  of  the  table. 

The  test  selected  is  that  prepared  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone,  and  used 
by  him  in  measuring  the  arithmetical  achievements  of  the  following 
twenty-six  sc'hool  systems: 

-   Batavia,  New  York. 

Decatur,  Illinois. 

Elwood,   Indiana. 

Ethical    Culture    School,   New   York   City. 

Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago. 

Horace  Mann  School,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

Indianapolis,   Indiana. 

Jersey  City,  New  Jersey. 

Kokomo,  Indiana. 

Linne  School,  Chicago. 

Medford,    Massachusetts. 

Montclair,  New  Jersey. 

Muncie,  Indiana. 

Natick,  Massachusetts. 

Observation  School,  State  Normal,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Passaic,  New  Jersey. 

Providence,  R.  I. 

Rochester,  New  York. 

Schools  No.  40  and  No.  50,  Manhattan,  New  York  City. 

Speyer  School,  Columbia  University. 

Syracuse,  New  York. 

Training  School,  State  Normal,  Hyannis,  Massachusetts. 

University  Elementary  School,  University  of  Chicago. 

Waltham,   Massachusetts. 

Waukegan,  Illinois. 

Yonkers,  New  York. 

The  test  consists  of  two  parts:  First,  a  series  of  problems  in  fun- 
damentals; and  second,  a  series  of  problems  in  reasoning.  The 
method  by  which  these  tests  were  selected,  their  purpose,  content, 

97 


and  scoring,  are  fully  explained  in  Dr.  Stone's  "Arithmetical  Abilities 
and  Some  Factors  Determining  Them,"  Columbia  University,  Contrir 
buttons  to  Education,  Teachers  College,  Series  No.  19. 

In  formulating  his  tests  Dr.  Stone  had  the  assistance  of  Profes- 
sor Smith,  and  the  content  of  each  test  was  so  organized  as  to  present 
a  definite  purpose,  accurately  measurable.  Each  test  was  tried  out 
with  pupils  to  determine  the  most  reasonable  time  limit  as  well  as 
arrangement  of  problems.  In  Fundamentals  the  main  purpose  was 
the  determination  of  the  ability  of  pupils  completing  the  sixth  grade, 
in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division.  The  first  six 
questions  embodied  all  the  difficulties  of  the  four  fundamental  opera- 
tions, but  the  test  was  made  purposely  too  long  (fourteen  examples) 
for  any  except  the  brightest,  most  rapid  pupil  to  finish  in  the  twelve 
minute  limit.  This  not  only  kept  them  from  getting  out  of  work  but 
also  provided  means  to  measure  their  total  ability,  including  rapidity. 
In  Reasoning  the  main  purpose  was  the  determination  of  the  ability 
of  these  children  to  reason  in  arithmetic.  To  this  end  the  problems 
had  been  selected  and  arranged  after  careful  trial  with  pupils  in  the 
classroom  and  were  weighted  according  to  the  degree  of  difficulty  ex- 
perienced by  the  children  in  this  preliminary  study  by  Dr.  Stone.  Dr. 
Stone's  weighting  and  arrangement  have  been  accepted  and  used 
throughout  this  study  upon  his  authority  (c.  f.  Arithmetical  Abilities, 
pages  10  and  18).  This  test  also  was  made  purposely  so  long  that 
but  very  few  of  the  most  rapid  children  might  be  expected  to  com- 
plete it  in  the  fifteen  minute  limit.  In  this  also  the  first  six  prob- 
lems embodied  all  the  conditions  deemed  essential.  Each  of  the  two 
tests  was  printed  separately,  and  each  pupil  was  furnished  with  a 
copy.  A  sample  of  each  test  is  appended  hereto  so  as  to  show  the 
exact  form  in  which  each  went  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 


98 


ARITHMETIC  TEST. 

Work  as  many  of  these  problems  as  you  have  time  for;  work  them  im 
order  as  numbered: 


1. 

Add 

2375 

4052 

6354 

260 

5041 

1543 

2. 
3. 

4 

Multiply 
Divide 
Add 

3265  by  20 
3328  by  64 
596 

428 

94 

75 

on  o 

oBa 
645 

984 

897 

5. 
6. 
7. 

Multiply 
Divide 
Add 

768  by  604 
1918962  by 
4695 

543 

872 

7948 

6786 

567 

858 

9447 

7499 

8. 
9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 

Multiply 
Divide 
Multiply 
Divide 
Multiply 
Divide 
Multiply 

976  by  87 
2782542  by  679 
5489  by  9876 
5099941  by  749 
876  by  79 
62693256  by  859 
96879  by  896 

Solve  as  many  of  the  following  problems  as  you  have  time  for;  work 
them  in  order  as  numbered: 

1.  If  you  buy  2  tablets  at  7  cents  each  and  a  book  for  65  cents,  how 

much  change  should  you  receive  from  a  two-dollar  bill? 

2.  John  sold  4  Saturday  Evening  Posts  at  5  cents  each.     He  kept 

half  the  money  and  with  the  other  half  he  bought  Sunday  pa- 
pers at  2  cents  each.  How  many  did  he  buy? 

3.  If  James  had  4  times  as  much  money  as  George,  he  would  have 

$16.     How  much  money  has  George? 

4.  How  many  pencils  can  you  buy  for  50  cents  at  the  rate  of  2  for 

5  cents? 

5.  The  uniforms  for  a  baseball  nine  cost  $2.50   each.     The   shoes 

cost  $2  a  pair.  What  was  the  total  cost  of  uniforms  and  shoes 
lor  the  nine? 

6.  In  the  school  of  a  certain  city  there  are  2,200  pupils;   half  are 

in  primary  grades;  one-fourth  in  the  grammar  grades;  one- 
eighth  in  the  High  School  and  the  rest  in  the  night  school. 
How  many  pupils  are  in  the  night  school? 

7.  If  y/2.  tons  of  coal  cost  $21,  what  will  5*&  tons  cost? 

8.  A  news  dealer  bought  some  magazines  for  $1.     He  sold  them  for 

$1.20,  gaining  5  cents  on  each  magazine.  How  many  magazines 
were  there? 

9.  A  girl  spent  one-eighth  of  her  money  lor  car  fare,   and  three 

times  as  much  for  clothes.  Half  of  what  she  had  left  was  80 
cents.  How  much  money  did  she  have  at  first? 

10.  Two  girls  receive  $2.10  for  making  buttonholes.     One  makes  42, 

the  other  28.     How  shall  they  divide  the  money? 

11.  Mr.  Brown  paid  one-third  of  the  cost  of  a  building;  Mr.  Johnson. 

paid  half  the  cost.  Mr.  Johnson  received  $500  more  annual 
rent  than  Mr.  Brown.  How  much  did  each  receive? 

12.  A  freight  train  left  Albany  for  New  York  at  6  o'clock.     An  ex- 

press left  on  the  same  track  at  8  o'clock.  It  went  at  the  rate 
of  40  miles  an  hour.  At  what  time  of  day  will  it  overtake  the 
freight  train  if  the  freight  train  stops  after  it  has  gone  5& 
miles? 

Exactly  twelve  minutes  were  allowed  for  the  test  in  fundamentals, 
and  fifteen  minutes  for  the  test  in  reasoning. 

All  papers  were  collected  immediately  and  forwarded  to  Mr. 
Hebden  by  express  on  December  17,  1912.  The  scoring  of  all  the  pa- 
pers was  done  entirely  by  him.  The  credits  for  each  example  are 
the  same  as  those  given  by  Dr.  Stone.  In  fundamentals  each  step> 
in  the  process  of  working  each  of  the  examples  was  given  a  score 
of  one:  For  instance,  in  "Example  1"  Addition  received  a  score  of 
four,  being  one  for  each  column  correctly  added;  in  "Example  6" 
Division  received  a  score  of  four,  Multiplication  a  score  of  four,  and 

100 


Subtraction  a  score  of  three,  each  step  thus  receiving  its  due  credit 
These  illustrations  will  serve  to  make  clear  the  following  complete 
list  of  scores  for  the  several  problems,  assuming  all  steps  to  be  cor- 
rectly worked: 

1.  Score  of  4  in  addition. 

2.  Score  of  2  in  multiplication. 

3.  Score  of  2  in  division,  2  in  multiplication,  1  in  subtraction. 

4.  Score  of  3  in  addition. 

5.  Score  of  3  in  multiplication,  2  -in  addition. 

6.  Score  of  4  in  division,  4  in  multiplication,  3  in  subtraction. 

7.  Score  of  4  in  addition. 

S.  Score  of  2  in  multiplication,  4  in  addition. 

9.  Score  of  4  in  division,  4  in  multiplication,  2  in  subtraction. 

10.  Score  of  4  in  multiplication,  7  in  addition. 

11.  Score  of  4  in  division,  4  in  multiplication,  2  In  subtraction. 

12.  Score  of  2  in  multiplication,  3  in  addition. 

13.  Score  of  5  in  division,  5  in  multiplication,  4  in  subtraction. 

14.  Score  of  3  in  multiplication,  7  in  addition. 

The  step  incorrectly  done  lost  the  score  for  that  step  and  counted 
a  mistake  instead.  Where  a  mistake  was  made  in  copying  the  ex- 
ample, no  deduction  was  made,  but  credit  was  allowed  for  the  step 
worked  correctly  In  accordance  therewith.  In  Beasoning  a  score  of 
1  ia  given  for  each  example  where  the  reasoning  is  correct  even 
though  there  are  errors  in  the  computation;  where  the  reasoning  is 
right  in  part,  and  in  part  wrong,  a  corresponding  fractional  credit 
is  given,  and  the  mistake  is  also  counted.  This  method  of  scoring 
follows  Dr.  Stone's  plan,  not  only  making  the  comparison  between 
cities  upon  the  same  basis,  but  also  serving  to  make  the  credits  stand 
definitely  for  that  which  they  were  intended  to  show.  The  weighting 
of  the  scores  in  Reasoning  is  that  used  also  by  Dr.  Stone,  as  follows: 

Problem  1,  as  weighted,  gives  credit  of  one  score; 

problem  2,  one  score; 

problem  3,  one  score; 

problem  4,  one  score; 

problem   5,  one  score; 

problem  6,  one  and  four  tenths  scores; 

problem  7,  one   and  two  tenths  scores; 

problem  8,  one  and  six  tenths  scores; 

problem  9,  two  scores; 

problem  10,  two  scores; 

problem   11,  two  scores; 

problem  12,  two  scores. 

101 


The  score  for  each  class,  and  for  the  city  as  a  unit,  was  reduced 
to  the  basis  of  one  hundred,  the  number  chosen  by  Dr.  Stone  as  the 
basis  of  his  scoring.  To  be  more  explicit,  the  actual  score  in  funda- 
mentals made  by  the  thirty-six  pupils  in  class  VIII  is  1458.  This 
score  multiplied  by  one  hundred  and  divided  by  thirty-six  gives  4050, 
the  score  representing  this  class  in  all  the  tables  used. 

The  actual  score  in  Fundamentals  made  by  the  three  hundred 
and  nineteen  pupils  in  all  the  sixth2  classes  (one  pupil,  coming  to 
school  after  the  test  in  Fundamentals  had  been  started,  was  allowed 
to  take  the  test  in  Reasoning,  thus  making  the  difference  of  one  in  the 
two  parts  of  the  test)  is  13,477.  This  reduced  to  the  basis  of  one 
hundred  pupils  gives  a  score  of  4,224.8,  or  4225,  the  nearest  integer. 
In  this  way  the  scores  for  steps  attempted,  mistakes,  and  steps  ac- 
complished, have  been  reduced  throughout  the  study. 

No  attempt  is  made  in  this  report  to  consider  time  expendi- 
ture in  relation  to  achievements.  The  effects  of  the  course  of  study 
and  of  supervision  are  noted  only  as  they  become  factors  in  deductions 
and  comparisons  of  the  data  given  in  tables. 

After  presenting  in  tables  I(a),  Kb),  II(a),  and  II(b)  (the  scores 
achieved  by  the  several  classes  in  Reasoning  and  Fundamentals  when 
all  problems  are  counted  and  when  only  the  first  six  problems  are 
counted)  the  remaining  tables  are  taken  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
compare  the  achievements  of  Bridgeport  as  a  system  with  the  twenty- 
six  systems  of  other  cities.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  study,  brief  no- 
tice is  given  to  the  achievements  of  the  Bridgeport  classes  as  com- 
pared with  one  another. 

TABLES    I*    and    I* 

Showing  the  classes  in  order  of  achievement  in  Stone's  test  in 
REASONING,  the  scores  made  by  the  several  classes  and  by  the 
city  as  a  whole  (each  reduced  to  the  basis  of  100),  when  all  problems 
are  counted  (Ia),  and  when  the  first  six  problems  only  are  counted 


TABLE  I« 


TABLE 


Reasoning 
First  problems  counted 


Reasoning 
First  six  problems  counted 


Classes   &  City 
in  order  of 
achievement 

VIII  . 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

446  8 

Classes   &  City 
in  order  of 
achievement 

VIII 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

418  6 

IV   ... 

496  4 

VI 

460  7 

VI   

518 

IV         

477.3 

Bridgeport  

588.4 
609  2 

Bridgeport   . 
VII 

493.8 

499   1 

I  . 

637.3 

I   

507  .  3 

Ill  . 

638  9 

V     

508  .  1 

VII    

677  9 

IT 

530.  6 

II    

688.2 

in  .......:::. 

547.4 

1*2 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  CITIES  AS  SYSTEMS. 

Comparison  of  Bridgeport  with  Other  Systems. 

For  convenience  of  reference,  the  scores  of  the  several  classes, 
and  of  the  city  us  a  unit,  have  been  -arranged  on  the  preceding  page 
so  as  to  show  in  table  l(a)  the  scores  made  in  Reading,  all  problems 
being  counted;  and  in  Kb),  the  scores  in  Reasoning  where  the  first 
six  problems  are  counted. 

Tables  II (a)  and  II (b)  show  similar  scores  made  in  Funda- 
mentals. The  tables  have  been  thus  organized  and  arranged  not  only 
for  convenience  of  reference,  but  also  for  ready  comparison  between 
the  amount  of  work  done  beyond  the  first  six  problems  in  Reasoning, 
and  that  done  beyond  the  first  six  problems  in  Fundamentals.  This 
is  of  interest  and  will  have  a  bearing  in  the  final  deduction  concern- 
ing each  of  these  parts  of  the  test.  The  lowest  class,  VIII,  scored 
but  28  credits  beyond  the  first  six  problems  in  Reasoning.  The  high- 
est class  increased  its  score  by  141.  In  Fundamentals  the  lowest 
class,  IV,  achieved  1046  after  the  first  six  problems;  the  highest  class, 
2045.  The  greater  facility  in  Fundamentals  over  Reasoning  is  thus 
clearly  demonstrated. 


TABLES   Ila   and   lib 

Showing  the  classes  in  order  of  achievement  in  Stone's  test  in 
FUNDAMENTALS,  the  scores  made  by  the  several  classes  and  by 
the  city  as  a  whole  (each  reduced  to  the  basis  of  100),  when  all  prob- 
lems are  counted  (IIa),  and  when  the  first  six  problems  only  are 
counted 


TABLE 


TABLE   lib 


Fu  ndamen t  a  1  s 
All  problems  counted 


Fundamentals 
First  six  problems  counted 


Classes   &   City 
in  order  of 
achievement 
IV 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

5862  3 

Classes    &   City 
in  order  of 
achievement 

II    . 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

2637.3 

VI 

3963  6 

IV    

2815.6 

VIII     
II 

4050. 
4109  8 

Bridgeport   
VII    

2834.8 

2838.2 

v 

4121   6 

V    

2848.7 

Bridgeport 

4224  8 

VI    

2879.5 

III                          ' 

4231  6 

I     

2881.2 

I     

4691.9 

VIII  

2905.5 

VII    i 

4997. 

Ill    

2951.5 

Tables  III  and  IV  show  the  place  of  Bridgeport  in  serial  rank 
as  compared  with  the  other  cities  in  Reasoning  and  in  Fundamentals, 
respectively,  all  problems  befng  counted.  From  Table  III,  Reasoning, 
it  is  seen  that  Bridgeport  ranks  fifteenth,  counting  from  the  loweit 


103 


city,  being,  two  orders  above  the  median  of  the  other  cities.  By 
median  is  meant  the  number,  or  score,  below  which  and  above  which 
there  are  an  equal  number  of  systems. 

In  Fundamentals  (Table  IV) ,  Bridgeport  is  found  occupying  the 
highest  rank  of  all,  a  gain  of  twelve  places  in  serial  order.  These 
comparisons  indicate  that  in  Reasoning  the  Bridgeport  schools  mani- 
fest a  fair  degree  of  ability,  while  in  Fundamentals,  a.  much  higher 
degree  of  excellence  of  achievement  is  attained.  The  gain  of  twelve 
places  in  rank  in  Fundamentals  over  Reasoning  shows  a  much  greater 
ability  in  the  more  formal  work  in  arithmetic.  To  what  extent  ac- 
curacy and  rapidity  enter  into  this  standing  will  be  noted  later  in 
studying  the  tables  showing  accuracy  and  speed. 

Figure  1  presents  a  graphic  illustration  of  Table  III.  The  numbers 
in  the  column  at  the  left  of  the  figure  indicate  scores  made  by  the 
••Yeral  cities.  Each  column  shows  quantitatively  the  amount  of  work 


TABLES   III  and  IV 

Showing  the  relative  position  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  compared 
with  twenty-six  other  cities,  in  order  of  achievement,  as  measured 
by  the  scores  made  in  Stone's  test,  all  problems  counted. 


TABLE  III — Reasoning 


Cities 
in  order  of 
achievement 

xxiii  . 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

356 

XXIV    . 

429 

XVII    ........ 

444 

IV   

464 

XXV   . 

464 

XXII    

468 

XVI   ......... 

469 

XX 

491 

XVIII   ...... 

509 

XV    ...     . 

532 

Ill 

533 

VIII    

538 

VI  

550 

Median 
I   

551 
552 

Bridgeport  

588 

601 

II   

615 

XXT    ... 

627 

XIII 

636 

XIV   .. 

661 

IX    ....... 

691 

VII    . 

734 

XII   

736 

XI  

759 

XXVI 

791 

XIX 

848 

V  .  . 

ei4 

TABLE  IV— Fundamentals 


Cities 
in  order  of 
achievement 

XXIII 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

1841 

XXV    

2167 

XX    ..    ...    ... 

2168 

XXII 

2311 

VIII    

2747 

X    

2749 

XV 

2779 

III  

2845 

1  

2935 

XXI 

2951 

II  

2958 

XVII     . 

3042 

XIII 

3049 

Median 
VI    

3111 
3173 

XI 

3261 

IX    

3404 

XII    .  .   . 

3410 

XXIV 

3513 

XIV   

3561 

IV 

3563 

v 

3569 

XXVI 

3682 

XVI   

3707 

XVIII 

3758 

VII 

3782 

XIX   

4099 

Bridgeport  — 

4225 

104 


' 


Fig.  1. — Graphical  illustration  of  Table  III,  showing  scores  in 
REASONING  made  by  the  pupils  in  62  classes  of  the  schools  in 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  and  in  twenty-six  other  cities,  ALL  PROBLEMS 
being  counted. 


105 


done  by  the  city  designated  by  the  Roman  numerals  above  the  column, 
BrI4geport  appears  here,  as  in  the  table,  the  second  column  to  the 
right  of  the  median. 

Figure  2  graphically  illustrates  Table  IV  in  a  manner  exactly 
similar  to  figure  1.  In  this  figure,  the  column  representing  Bridgeport 
is  found  at  the  extreme  right  and  reaching  higher  in  place  than  any 
other  city.  These  graphs,  with  the  others  to  follow,  lend  themselves 
to  a  ready  view  of  the  entire  field  of  comparison,  and  contrasts  are 
more  easily  seen  in  this  way,  which  will  lead  to  a  closer  examination 
of  the  detailed  scores  given  in  the  tables.  It  is  for  such  purposes 
only  that  they  have  been  made  a  part  of  this  report. 

Table  V  separates  the  scores  in  fundamentals  made  by  the  sev- 
eral cities  so  as  to  show  the  achievements  in  each  of  the  four  differ- 
ent operations,  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division.  Oc- 
cupying as  it  does  the  highest  serial  place,  we  must  look  for  Bridge- 
port in  a  similar  position  under  each  of  these  heads.  The  table  shows 
that  Bridgeport  ranks  highest  in  addition  and  multiplication.  It  ranks 
next  to  the  highest  city  in  subtraction  and  division.  This  is  consist- 
ent with  the  place  occupied  in  the  general  score,  and,  further,  it  shows 
that  the  Bridgeport  schools  maintain  an  almost  even  level  in  the  high 
place  of  achievement  in  each  of  these  formal  operations. 

Tables  VI  and  VII  show  the  scores  of  the  Bridgeport  schools  in 
Reasoning  and  in  Fundamentals,  but  include  the  scores  of  the  first 
six  problems  only.  In  Table  VI,  we  find  Bridgeport  occupying  almost 
the  same  relative  position  as  when  all  problems  were  counted.  In 
this  table  it  occupies  the  fourteenth  place  in  rank  from  the  lowest. 
In  table  III  it  held  fifteenth  rank,  thus  showing  by  the  gain  of  one 
place  in  rank  when  all  problems  are  counted  that  it  had  maintained 
about  the  same  ability  in  achievement  without  any  loss  of  rapidity 
in  doing  the  work.  Here  again,  the  work  measures  fair  in  compari- 
son with  other  cities.  In  Fundamentals,  (Table  VII),  however, 
Bridgeport  again  occupies  the  highest  rank  and  gains  one  place  over 
Its  own  position  in  Reasoning  as  compared  with  the  difference  in 
rank  when  all  problems  were  counted.  That  Bridgeport  occupies 
almost  exactly  the  same  positions  in  these  two  tables  as  it  did  in 
Tables  III  and  IV,  emphasizes  the  difference  in  ability  between  Reas- 
oning and  the  simple  fundamental  operations  noted  under  the  previous 
tables. 

Figure  3  has  been  drawn  to  illustrate  Table  VI.  The  scores  are 
again  placed  at  the  left  and  columns  similarly  used  to  represent  the 
achievements  of  the  several  cities.  In  this  table,  however,  a  line  of 
dashes  has  been  drawn  above  the  columns  to  show  the  highest  pos- 
sible score  attainable  when  the  first  six  problems  only  are  counted. 
As  the  number  of  pupils  who  failed  to  attempt  the  first  six  problems 
are  so  few  as  to  be  almost  negligible,  the  space  between  the  top  of 
each  column  and  the  line  of  highest  score  will  approximately  illus- 

106 


JUo 

**•« 


74-00 
lt.0 


Fig.  2. — Graphical  illustration  of  Table  IV,  showing  scores  in 
FUNDAMENTALS  made  by  the  pupils  in  6^  classes  of  the  schools  in 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  and  in  twenty-six  other  cities,  ALL  PROBLEMS 
being  counted. 

107 


TABLE  V 

Showing  the  relative  position  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  compared 
with  twenty-six  other  cities,  in  the  order  of  achievement  as  measured 
by  the  scores  made  in  each  of  the  fundamental  operations. 


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TABLES  VI  and  VII 

Showing  the  relative  position  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  compared 
with  twenty-six  other  cities,  in  order  of  achievement,  as  measured 
by  the  scores  for  the  first  six  problems  only. 


TABLE  VI— Reasoning 


TABLE  VII— Fundamentals 


Cities 
in  order  of 
achievement 

XXITI 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

342 

XVII 

389 

XVI   

389 

XXIV  

396 

IV    

420 

XXII 

423 

XX   

426 

XXV  

438 

Ill  

445 

XVIII 

452 

VI    , 

455 

I  .  

466 

VIII    

468 

Median 
Bridgeport   .... 

XIII    ! 

483 
494 
497 

X    . 

502 

IX  

503 

XV   

508 

XIV  

514 

II  

516 

XXI   . 

532 

XII    . 

536 

V  . 

549 

XIX  

564 

XXVI  
XI    

569 
576 

VII  

661 

Cities 
in  order  of 
achievement 

XXIII   . 

Scores 
reduced  to 
basis  of  100 

1776 

XXV    

2078 

XX    ..    

2084 

XXII 

2116 

x 

2383 

XVII   

2416 

I  

2456 

XV  

2494 

Ill    

2495 

VIII    

2501 

XXI           .... 

2548 

II  

2554 

VI    

2565 

Median 
XIII    

2578 
2590 

IX      

2650 

IV        .    

2694 

XVIII      

2703 

XI  

2706 

XXVI 

27]  0 

XII  

2713 

XIV  

2717 

XVI   

2728 

v    

2767 

VII   

2782 

XIX  

2791 

XXIV   

2815 

Bridgeport  .... 

2835 

109 


I 


trate  the  amount  of  inaccuracy  in  this  part  of  the  work.  In  this 
graph  Bridgeport  itself  becomes  the  median  of  the  twenty-seven  cities 
here  represented. 

Figure  4  similarly  illustrates  Table  VII  when  only  the  first  six 
problems  in  fundamentals  are  counted.  The  column  representing 
Bridgeport  is  again  at  the  extreme  right,  extending  above  the  others. 
The  line  of  highest  possible  score  for  the  six  problems  is  again  placed 
above  the  several  columns,  and  will  serve  similarly  to  show  approxi- 
mately the  amount  of  accuracy. 

Since  these  four  columns  have  been  constructed  on  the  basis  of 
the  actual  scores  made  rather  than  on  the  per  cent  of  work  done  upon 
equivalent  basis,  the  height  of  the  columns  must  not  be  understood 
to  show  the  amount  of  work  done  in  Fundamentals  as  in  any  way 
compared  with  the  amount  of  work  done  in  Reasoning.  Such  a  com- 
parison is  made  in  presenting  the  next  tables  and  the  graphs  repre- 
senting them,  in  order  that  the  accuracy  in  working  Fundamentals 
and  the  simple  problems  in  Reasoning  may  be  more  positively  com- 
pared. 

Tables  VIII  and  IX  are  intended  to  show  measures  of  accuracy 
in  arithmetic  work.  Table  VIII  presents  definitely  the  number  of 
problems  in  Reasoning  attempted  and  the  number  of  mistakes  in 
reasoning,  not  in  computation.  The  rate  per  cent,  of  this  number  of 
mistakes  is  based  upon  the  total  number  of  problems  attempted  by 
each  system.  In  this  table  it  is  shown  that  Bridgeport  occupies  a 
higher  rank  in  accuracy  than  it  attained  in  achievement,  being  twenty- 
second  above  the  lowest  here;  whereas,  it  was  fifteenth  above  the 
lowest  in  order  of  achievement.  This  does  not  indicate  that  the 
rank  in  achievement  has  been  lowered  because  of  any  great  amount 
of  inaccuracy;  probably  the  contrary  is  the  case. 

In  table  IX,  inaccuracy  is  measured  by  the  number  of  mistakes 
made  in  the  problems  calling  for  addition  only,  problems  1,  4,  and  7. 
Dr.  Stone  has  shown  in  his  Arithmetical  Abilities,  page  29,  why  he 
considers  *  *  *  "addition  to  be  the  best  of  the  four  fundamental 
operations  to  serve  as  a  measure  of  accuracy  in  the  more  formal 
phases  of  arithmetic."  In  Table  IX,  a  considerable  change  is  noted 
in  the  rank  of  Bridgeport  from  that  which  it  occupied  in  the  table 
of  achievement  in  Fundamentals.  Here  it  occupies  the  sixteenth 
place  from  the  lowest,  eleven  places  below  the  highest  rank,  its 
position  in  order  of  achievement.  This  is  a  factor  which  will  be 
considered  in  finally  estimating  the  relative  abilities  shown  by  the 
pupils  in  the  Bridgeport  schools,  all  things  being  considered. 

Figures  5  and  6  are  drawn  to  illustrate  graphically  the  rates  per 
cent,  of  mistakes  set  forth  in  the  two  tables  just  discussed.  In  these 
graphs,  however,  it  is  entirely  proper  to  make  an  immediate  com- 
parison based  upon  the  height  of  the  columns.  The  figures  at  the 
left  of  the  columns  are  rates  per  cent,  intended  to  aid  in  showing 
the  per  cent  of  mistakes  indicated  by  each  column.  Again,  each  of 

111 


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Fig.  4. — Graphical  illustration  of  Table  VII,  showing  scores  in 
FUNDAMENTALS  made  by  the  pupils  in  62  classes  of  the  schools  in 
Bridgeport,  Conn.,  and  in  twenty-six  other  cities,  only  the  FIRST, 
SIX  PROBLEMS  being  counted. 


TABLES  VIII  and  IX 

Showing  the  relative  position  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  compared 
with  twenty-six  other  cities  in  order  of  achievement  as  measured  by 
mistakes  made. 


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Fig.  5. — Graphical  illustration  of  Table  VIII,  showing  the  relative 
position  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  compared  with  twenty-six  other  cities, 
when  measured  by  per  cent,  of  MISTAKES  made  in  REASONING, 
all  problems  being  counted. 


114 


Fig.  6. — Graphical  illustration  of  Table  IX,  showing  the  relative 
position  of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  compared  with  twenty-six  other  cities 
in  order  of  accuracy  of  achievement  measured  by  per  c«nt  of  MIS-\ 
TAKES  MADE  IN  ADDITION,  problems  1,  4,  7  being  counted. 


115 


TABLE   X 

Showing     relative     standings     in     arithmetical     abilities  and    in 

accuracy,  of  Bridgeport  compared  with  twenty-six  other  city  systems 

of    schools — averages    ranking    in    serial    order,    1 — lowest,  2 — next 
higher,  and  so  on. 


Abilities 

A  c  c  u 

racy 

SYSTEMS 

Average 
serial 
standing 

Serial 
standing 
in 
Reasoning 
(Table 
III) 

Serial 
standing 
in  Funda- 
1  mentals 
(Table 
IV) 

Serial 
standing 
in 
Reasoning 
(Table 
VIII) 

Serial 
standing 
in  Funda- 
mentals': 
(Table 
IX) 

XXIII 

1 

1 

1 

3 

15 

XXV  

3 

4 

2 

16 

14 

XXII    

4.5 

5 

4 

8 

1 

XX 

5 

7 

3 

18 

2 

XVII     

7.5 

3 

12 

o 

4 

VIII        

8 

11 

5 

13 

17 

XV 

8 

9 

7 

6 

11 

III  

9 

10 

8 

4 

20 

XXIV  

10 

o 

18 

10 

23 

X 

10 

14 

6 

9 

7 

I 

11 

13 

9 

5 

3 

IV  

12 

4 

20 

17 

13 

II  

13.5 

16 

11 

24 

19 

XXI 

13.5 

17 

10 

26 

26 

VI 

13   5 

13 

14 

7 

5 

XVI    

15 

7 

23 

1 

18 

XIII      • 

16 

19 

13 

11 

10 

XVIII 

16  5 

9 

24 

14 

5 

IX 

18.5 

21 

16 

23 

8 

XI         ..        

19.5 

24 

15 

27 

27 

XIV 

19   5 

20 

19 

20 

22 

XII    

20 

23 

17 

21 

21 

Bridgeport    
XXVI   

VII                         i 

21 

2-3.5 
23  5 

15 

25 
22 

27 

22 
25 

22 

12 
19 

16 
24 

12 

V    

24 

27 

21 

25 

9 

XIX    

26 

26 

26 

15 

25 

116 


the  columns  represents  the  city  designated  by  the  Roman  numeral 
placed  above  it.  The  great  difference  in  acquracy  in  working  Reas- 
oning problems  and  simple  Fundamentals  becomes  evident  at  once 
upon  comparing  the  two  graphs. 

Table  X  brings  together  the  serial  standing  of  all  the  cities  in 
Fundamentals  and  in  Reasoning  from  which  the  rank  by  average  of 
abilities  is  obtained.  Bridgeport  is  found  ranking  twenty-third,  count- 
ing from  the  lowest,  or  fifth,  counting  from  the  highest  rank.  The 
average  of  abilities  which  determines  the  place  in  serial  standing 
is  obtained  by  dividing  the  sum  of  the  numbers,  indicating  the  serial 
order  by  the  scores  made  in  Reasoning  and  by  scores  made  in  Funda- 
mentals, by  two.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  the  serial  standings 
in  accuracy  have  also  been  brought  together  in  this  table,  but  they 
have  not  been  used  in  computing  the  average  of  abilities.  It  is  seen 
from  the  foregoing  that  the  arithmetical  abilities  of  the  children  in 
the  Bridgeport  schools  stand  well  up  toward  the  highest  Before 
deducing  a  final  estimate  It  will  be  well  to  study  some  of  the  factors 
entering  into  the  average  attained. 

First,  to  what  extent  has  accuracy  been  a  factor  in  determining 
the  place  of  Bridgeport  among  other  cities?  It  will  be  noticed  that 
Bridgeport  ranks  fifteen  from  the  lowest  in  Reasoning,  In  accuracy 
it  occupies  the  twenty-second  pla-36  above  the  lowest.  This  indi- 
cates clearly,  as  hereinbefore  stated,  that  the  relatively  lower  position 
occupied  in  Reasoning  is  not  chargeable  to  inaccuracy  since  it  has 
gained  seven  places  in  accuracy  over  the  place  made  in  Reasoning. 
As  far  as  this  point  Is  concerned  then,  other  factors  must  be  studied 
to  explain  what  is  evidently  a  lower  order  of  ability  in  Reasoning 
than  in  Fundamentals. 

In  Fundamentals,  Bridgeport  occupies  the  highest  rank  in  achieve- 
ment among  all  the  cities.  In  contrast  with  the  gain  in  serial  posi- 
tion in  Reasoning,  there  'has  been  a  loss  of  eleven  places  in  the  rank 
attained  in  accuracy.  This  shows  the  greater  ability  in  the  funda- 
mental operations,  notwithstanding  the  relatively  lower  position  in 
accuracy. 

Another  point  that  must  be  considered  is  the  facility  or  rapidity 
shown  in  the  work  and  its  effect  upon  the  final  standing  of  the  city. 
Tables  XI  and  XII  'have  been  compiled  for  this  purpose. 

Table  XI,  Reasoning,  compares  the  scores  made  in  all  problems 
with  the  scores  made  In  the  first  six  problems  by  Bridgeport,  by  the 
median  city,  and  by  the  highest  city  in  rank  according  to  Table  X. 
In  comparing  Bridgeport  with  the  median  city,  it  is  seen  that  Bridge- 
port scores  less  by  39,  all  problems  counted.  In  the  first  six  problems 
the  deficiency  was  38,  making  a  loss  of  but  one  after  the  first  six 
problems.  This  additional  loss  is  too  small  to  indicate  any  lower 
degree  of  facility  or  rapidity  than  was  possessed  by  the  median  city. 
In  comparing  Bridgeport  with  the  highest  city,  it  is  seen  that  Bridge- 
port is  70  scores  lower  for  the  first  six  problems  and  260  below  when 

117 


TABLES  XI  and  XII 

Showing  rapidity  or  slowness  by  the  higher  or  the  lower  scores 
made  in  Reasoning  and  in  Fundamentals  when  all  problems  are 
counted;  also  by  the  gain  or  the  loss  in  excess  of  scores  for  all  prob- 
lems over  the  excess  when  first  six  problems  are  counted,  the  scores 
made  by  Bridgeport  being  compared  with  the  corresponding  scores 
made  by  the  median  city  (XXI)  and  the  highest  city  (XIX)  in 
serial  rank  of  average  abilities  given  in  TABLE  X. 

-f-  =  excess  or  gain,  —  =  deficiency  or  loss. 


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all  problems  were  counted.  In  other  words,  Bridgeport  made  a  "loss 
in  excess"  of  190  scores  over  the  deficiency  in  the  scores  for  the  first 
six  problems.  This  indicates  that  Bridgeport  pupils  have  been  able 
to  do  less  work  than  the  highest  city  in  the  same  time,  and  that  the 
lower  ability  shown  in  Reasoning  has  not  been  caused  by  over- 
speeding. 

Table  XII  makes  a  similar  comparison  with  regard  to  Funda- 
mentals. In  comparison  with  the  median  city,  Bridgeport  makes  a 
gain  in  excess  of  987  credits  over  the  excess  shown  in  th*e  first  six 
problems.  Here  Bridgeport  has  not  only  attained  a  higher  score  for 
the  first  six  problems,  but  has  also  increased  that  gain  by  700  points 
after  the  first  six,  clearly  indicating  a  much  higher  degree  of  facility 
and  rapidity  in  doing  this  part  of  the  work.  In  comparison  with  the 
highest  city,  Bridgeport  still  shows  greater  speed,  though  not  to  so 
great  an  extent,  the  gain  in  excess  here  being  82.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  in  Reasoning,  the  Bridgeport  schools  ranked  higher  in 
accuracy  than  in  the  score  of  achievement,  and  that  they  have  not 
been  over-speedy,  it  is  indicated  clearly  that  these  two  factors  have 
not  tended  to  lower  the  relative  rank  in  Reasoning.  Again,  it  is 
noted  that  the  rank  in  Fundamentals  is*  not  only  held  for  the  first  six 
problems,  but  is  more  firmly  fixed  when  all  problems  are  considered; 
that  there  is  a  gain  in  rapidity,  while  at  the  same  time,  there  is  a 
lowered  rank  in  accuracy.  The  deduction  is  that  both  facility  and 
accuracy  have  been  forces  in  determining  the  rank,  but  that  gain 
by  facility  has  been  so  much  greater  than  the  loss  of  accuracy  as 
to  have  more  than  overbalanced  its  opposing  effect. 

Figure  7  presents  in  charted  form  all  of  these  results  and  de- 
ductions. The  serial  order  of  the  twenty-seven  cities  is  noted  in  the 
numbers  at  the  left.  Tbe  charting  presents  the  various  changes  in 
standings  for  Bridgeport,  for  the  city  ranking  lowest,  for  the  median 
city,  and  for  the  city  ranking  highest.  The  heavy  solid  lines  repre- 
sent Bridgeport.  The  dot  and  dash  lines  represent  the  other  cities. 
The  chart  shows  the  relative  rank  of  Bridgeport  and  of  the  cities 
just  mentioned  in  Reasoning  and  in  Fundamentals,  and  contrasts 
the  rank  attained  in  Reasoning  with  the  rank  in  Fundamentals. 
That  Bridgeport  falls  below  the  median  city  in  Reasoning  while  it 
ranks  so  much  above  the  others  in  Fundamentals,  that  over-speeding 
and  inaccuracy  cannot  be  chargeable  as  the  cause,  and  that  the  more 
formal  part  of  the  work,  Fundamentals,  attains  ihe  higher  rank, 
with  rapidity  overbalancing  the  greater  relative  degree  of  inaccuracy, 
these  conditions  make  it  necessary  to  inquire  to  what-  extent  the 
course  of  study,  its  interpretation  and  use,  and  supervision  may  pos- 
sibly affect  'the  results  obtained. 

An  examination  of  the  course  of  study  in  arithmetic  "shows  that 
the  topics  are  definite  and  clear,  that  the  order  of  topics  conforms  to 
that  found  in  most  other  cities,  and  that  there  are  a'mple  suggestions 
intended  to  be  helpful  to  the  teacher.  In  some  respects,  the  char- 

119 


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mm 

v  .1     „•»-.* 


i  -•« 


tl 


r  t 

V       — • 

«n    "3 


!§ 

it 
I *• 
*  1 


il 

11 


TVcn  d  g'm.e  rtTa  I  s 
Ser  i'af    stand  yeas 


n 


S3 


xx/n 


y 


Fig.  7. — Chart  showing  the  rank  of  Bridgeport,  of  the  highest,  of 
the  lowest,  and  of  the  median  city  (Table  X)  in  each  of  the  several 
serial  standings;  the  upward  and  the  downward  changes  in  rank;  the 
comparison  of  city  with  city;  and  the  contrast  of  standings  in  reason- 
ing with  those  in  fundamentals. 


120 


acter  of  these  suggestions  may  be  considered  as  the  cause  for  the 
emphasis  put  upon  the  more  -formal  side  of  the  work.  An  illustra- 
tion of  this  is  found  on  page  36  under  "Intelligent  Statement."  The 
suggestions  here  are  so  definite  and  precise  that  they  take  on  the 
character  of  being  prescribed  rather  than  suggested.  This  may,  and 
doubtless  does,  in  part,  account  for  the  teachers'  insisting  upon  form 
in  the  solution  of  simple  concrete  problems  to  so  great  an  extent 
as  to  interfere  materially  with  the  freedom  of  the  child  in  working 
out  his  own  thoughts.  One  does  not  suppose  that  this  is  the  inten- 
tion of  the  course.  It  has  been  shown  by  a  number  of  investigators 
that  the  course  of  study  in  itself  is  not  a  very  potent  factor  in  the 
result  produced;  but  that  the  interpretation  and  the  use  of  the  course 
of  study  is  of  the  greatest  moment.  Where  the  interpretation  is  not 
what  it  was  intended  to  be,  and  where  the  use  does  not  follow  the 
expectation,  it  would  indicate  that  there  is  need  for  a  somewhat 
closer  supervision. 

This  study  of  the  arithmetic  work  of  the  Bridgeport  schools, 
therefore,  leads  to  the  deduction  that  the  work  in  arithmetic  is  of 
a  high,  order,  that  greater  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  more  formal 
part  of  the  work,  that  in  Reasoning  the  work  is  of  a  fair  order,  that 
the  course  of  study  probably  emphasizes  the  formal,  and  that  closer 
supervision  would  tend  to  overcome  any  misapprehension  with  regard 
to  what  the  course  of  study  intended  the  practice  to  be. 

ACHIEVEMENT  OF  CLASSES  AS  CLASSES. 

It  was  thought  that  it  might  be  of  interest  to  present  briefly  the 
scores  of  the  classes  as  suc'h  in  comparison  with  the  score  of  the 
city  as  a  whole.  Table  XIII  gives  the  score  in  Reasoning  for  each 
class,  the  number  of  problems  attempted,  the  score  achieved,  the 
number  of  mistakes  made,  and  the  per  cent,  of  inaccuracy. 

Table  XIV  presents  the  same  points  for  Fundamentals.  The 
number  of  classes  is  so  much  smaller  than  the  number  of  systems 
that  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  compare  the  amount  of  deviation 
between  the  classes  with  the  amount  of  deviation  between  the  high- 
est and  lowest  city  systems.  It  will  be  noted  in  Table  XIII  that 
class  V  occupies  the  median  position.  The  score  is  609.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  scores  of  the  lowest  class,  VIII,  and  the  highest 
class,  II,  is  241,  which  is  39..6%  deviation  from  the  median  class,  mak- 
ing the  same  comparison  in  Fundamentals,  the  difference  between 
the  highest  and  lowest  scores  is  1135,  which  is  just  27.5%  deviation 
from  the  median  score  of  4122.  These  rates  of  deviation  are,  of 
course,  much  less  than  that  found  between  the  highest  and  lowest 
of  the  twenty-six  city  systems  in  the  previous  part  of  the  study; 
but  here,  again,  we  note  that  the  deviation  in  Reasoning  is  over  12% 
more  than  the  deviation  in  Fundamentals.  This  is  another  way  of 
showing  that  even  within  the  classes  themselves  greater  ability  is 
developed  in  form  and  method  than  in  the  concrete  process  of  Reas- 
oning. 

121 


ACHIEVEMENT    OF    THE    CLASSES    AS    CLASSES 
TABLES  XIII  and  XIV 

Comparison  of  the  various  scores  made  by  the  Bridgeport  classes 
and  the  city  as  a  whole  in  Reasoning  and  in  Fundamentals,  all  prob- 
lems being  counted  and  scores  reduced  to  basis  of  100. 


•q 


O  4-J 


O   rt 


CJ   ^   O   O  (M  »O  Cl  M  l> 
OSQlOi-IOiOlCOOO 

OOO5OTHiHO««COO5 


1/5 


O   rH   rH   CO   C'7  TlH   O1   O5 


y 


•i  -.   •  •  •      •  •  5,  •  •  : 

'E     :     -^     '     :nJ 


O 


O  tO  C>  '       m  W5         00- rt  j 

T-i  Tji  <M  O?  O  »«  O  t-  T-  I 

S?J   r-t  C-l  C*  CO  «  TH   Cl   W  I 


I    w 
•*:S.3 


OT  •*  IH  Ci  «  -^  r^  co  o 

Ci   C»   -f   •*    CO   CO   O   ?H    >0 


O  a  -2 


, 


in  i>  o  CJ  J>  oo 


Table  XV  has  been  added  to  show  the  ranking  order  of  the  sev- 
eral classes  by  an  average  of  their  abilities.  To  anyone  knowing  the 
kind  of  pupils,  their  home  environment,  age,  and  time  at  school,  this 
table  will  form  an  interesting  s.tudy. 


TABLE  XV 

Relative  serial  standing  of  'classes  and  the  city  as  a  whole,  based 
upon  average  ranking  in  abilities  as  shown  in  Tables  XIII  and  XIV. 


Serial  5 

standing 

Class 

Average 

or 

abilities 

Reasoning 
(Table   XIII) 

Fundamentals 
(Table   XIV) 

IV    . 

1.5 

2 

1 

VIII    .... 
VI 

2 
2  5 

1 

3 

3 
2 

Bridge'pt 

5. 

5. 

4 
5 

6 
5 

II 

6  5 

9 

4 

I 

7 

0 

8 

ITT 

7 

7 

7 

VII  ...... 

8.5 

8 

9 

123 


XII.    GENERAL  SUMMARY. 

Financial  Support  of  the  School  System. 

1.  How  much  education  and  how  good  an  education  a  community 
actually  gets  for  its  children  depends,  first,  on  how  much  money  it 
spends,  and,  second,  on  whether  or  not  it  uses  each  dollar  appropri- 
ated so  as  to  get  the  best  and  largest  educational  return. 

2.  Bridgeport  spends  annually  for  public   schools  more  than  a 
third  of  a  million  dollars  received  from  local  taxes,  state  funds,  and 
tuition  fees. 

3.  Bridgeport  spends  $26.81  each  year  for  the  education  of  each 
school  child,  while  the  average  for  11  other  cities  of  similar  size  is 
$41.13.     To  put  the   Bridgeport  schools   on  a  par  with  those   of   the 
average  city  of  like  population  would  cost  about  $200,000  additional 
per  year. 

4.  Bridgeport  teachers  receive  lower  salaries   and   teach   larger 
classes  than  do  those  of  any  other  city  compared,  which  means  that 
Bridgeport  children  receive  cheaper  teaching  and  less  of  it  than  the 
children  of  the  other  cities. 

5.  Bridgeport  spends  less  per  child  for  every  separate  item  of 
school   expenditure   than   does   the   average  city   of   like   size,   which 
means  that  Bridgeport  children  get  a  smaller   quantity  or  a  lower 
quality  of  every  sort  of  educational  opportunity  than  do  the  children 
of  the  other  cities. 

6.  Bridgeport   citizens    spend    less    per   capita   for   city   support 
than  do  those  of  any  other  city  of  similar  size  save  one,  but  they 
spend  less  for  their  public  schools  than  do  the  citizens  of  any  other 
city  compared. 

7.  The   particular   items   in   which   the  Bridgeport  expenditures 
are  most  deficient  when  compared  with  those  of  other  cities  are  the 
support  of  the  business  office  of  the  Board  of  Education,  the  purchase 
of  stationery  and  supplies,  the  payment  of  janitors,  the  support  of 
the  Superintendent's  office,  and  the  purchase  of  text-books. 

8.  Among  the   168   towns   and  cities  of  Connecticut,   Bridgeport 
ranks  second,  third,  and  fourth  in  seven  comparisons  of  educational 
resources,   and    153d   and    154th   in   two   comparisons   of   educational 
expenditures. 

Differentiation  of  Functions,  Supervision  and  Organization. 

1.  All    nominations    of    teachers  should  be  made  by  the  Super- 
intendent  of   Schools.     The   Board's    function   here   is   to    accept   or 
reject. 

2.  The    supervision   is   notably   insufficient   in   amount.     Employ 
an  assistant  superintendent  and  at  least  one   supervisor  of  primary 
work,  and  two  assistant  supervisors  of  drawing  and  hand  work.    Let 
the  assistant  superintendent  be  a  man  who,  in  addition  to  skill  in  the 
supervision  of  the  more  traditional  subjects,  possesses  the  technical 
knowledge  and  practical  experience  needed  in  directing  the  industrial 
work  in  the  grades  and  the  high  school. 

124 


3.  Employ   a   stenographer   and  an   additional   clerk  trained   in 
statistical  methods  to  conserve  the  time  of  the  Superintendent. 

4.  Conserve  the  time  of  principals  for  supervision  by  relieving 
them   of  the   bookkeeping  incident  to   the   penny   savings   system   as 
now  conducted. 

5.  Carry    further   and    make    more    systematic    the   grouping    of 
upper    grammar   grades    in   centrally    located  buildings,    and  provide 
for  differentiation  of  work  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  different 
groups   of  pupils.     Conduct   the  instruction  of  these  classes   on  the 
departmental  plan. 

6.  The    schoolrooms    are    overcrowded   and    they    lack    adequate 
teaching   equipment. 

7.  There  are  no  rooms   available  in  which  to  organize  special 
classes   for   foreign-born,   backward,   and   other   exceptional   children. 

8.  The    city   now    needs    32    additional    rooms   to    take    care   of 
ordinary  classes.     To  provide  these   rooms  at  once  and,  in  addition, 
provide    for    further   needs,    involves   too    great   a   charge    upon    the 
resources    of   a    single    year.     Future    generations    may    properly    be 
allowed  to  share  the  cost  of  improvements  as  permanent  as  school- 
houses.  ' 

9.  According  to  generally  accepted  standards,  too  few  children 
in  the  elementary  grades  are  making  either  rapid  or  normal  progress. 
Both   retardation   and  elimination  are  excessive.     In  the  fifth  grade 
59%   of  the  pupils  are  over-age  and  51%   of  all  pupils  enrolled  have 
left  school  before   reaching  the   sixth  grade. 

10.  The    schools    are    strong   in    drill    processes,    less    strong    in 
reasoning. 

11.  It  is  questionable  whether  formal  examinations  should  play 
so  prominent  a  part  in  the  promotion  of  pupils  as  they  appear  to  do. 

12.  The   discipline  of  the   schools   is  superior  and  the   spirit  of 
the  teaching  force  notably  good. 

13.  A  higher  maximum   salary   for  teachers,  if  awarded  strictly 
on  the  basis  of  merit  and  not  merely  on  length  of  service,  would  be  a 
wise  investment. 


The  City  Normal  School. 

1.  The  normal  school  is  seriously  handicapped  by  lack  of  facili- 
ties of  every  kind.     It  needs  more  rooms,  more  teachers,  more  books 
and    apparatus,    and    more    opportunities    for   observation   work   and 
practice  teaching. 

2.  The  entrance  requirements  are  too  easy. 

3.  The  local  normal  school  should  not  furnish  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  teachers  appointed  annually. 

125 


The  High  School. 

1.  Many  of   the    obvious    weaknesses   of   the    school  on  the  ed- 
ucational side  are  direct  consequences  of  the  unsatisfactory  physical 
conditions  under  which  the  work  is  being  conducted. 

2.  The  discipline  of  the  school  is  good. 

3.  Too  little  money  is  expended  on  the  school  to  give  the  boys 
and  girls  the  educational  experiences  to  which  they  are  entitled. 

4.  Develop  the  present  commercial  course  into  a  coherent  four- 
year  course  and  offer  a  short  clerkship  course. 

5.  Greek    is    being    taken   by   so    few   pupils   that   its    retention 
involves   an  extravagant  use  of  teacher  time  in  view   of   the  other 
needs  of  the  school. 

6.  Provide  a  two-year  course  in  Latin  open  to  pupils  not  going 
to  college. 

7.  Provide   an   industrial   department   with   a  full   four-year  in- 
dustrial course  and  a  full  four-year   domestic  science  course.     Pro- 
vide shorter  courses  for  boys  and  girls  who  will  leave  at  the  age  of 
sixteen. 

8.  In  co-operation  with  the  bureau    for    granting  work  permita, 
arrange  for  vocational  guidance. 

9.  In  the  new  high  school  building  provision  should  be  made  for 
the  industrial  department. 

10.  The  shops  should  be  strictly   industrial   both  as  to  the   ar- 
rangement of  their  equipment  and  the  type  of  work  done  in  them. 

11.  Strengthen  the  administration  of  the  school,  particularly  in 
the  line  of  better  supervision:   so  as  to  develop  more  unity  of  effort 
and  more  co-operation  among  the  members  of  certain  departments,  and 
so  as  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  instruction  throughout  the  school. 

Industrial  Education. 

1.  There   is    a    certain    minimum    of    general1   education    which 
every  individual  ought  to  have  in  order  that  he  may  be  an  intelli- 
gent citizen  and  get  a  reasonable  amount  of  satisfaction  out  of  life. 

2.  It  is  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  this  necessary  minimum 
of  training  can  be  given  in  less  than  six  years  of  schooling. 

3.  No  essential  part  of  this   general   education  should   be   sac- 
rificed in  order  to  include  training  for  industrial  efficiency. 

4.  After  the   general   education   has   been  taken   care   of,   there 
should  be  provided  for  the  boys  in  the  last  two  or  three  years  of 
the    elementary    school    opportunities   for   training   in   a   number   of 
lines  of  practical  work  for  the  purpose  of  developing  broad  indus- 
trial intelligence,  under  the  guidance  of  competent  teachers,  and  to 
assist  in  the  choosing  of  a  life-work. 

5.  General   education   for  girls  should  be   supplemented   in  the 
last  two  or  three  years  of  the  elementary  school  by  opportunities 
corresponding  to  those  proposed  for  boys,  and  by  practical  training 

126 


in  cooking,  sewing,  dressmaking,  millinery,  marketing,  keeping  of 
household  accounts,  sanitation  and  hygiene,  for  the  purpose  of  help- 
ing them  to  an  understanding  of  the  principles  of  home  making. 

6.  After  the  completion  of  the  general  education,  there  should 
be    provided    opportunities    for    practical   industrial    courses,   closely 
related  to  the   activities  of  the  community,  open  to  those  boys  and 
girls    who    elect    to    take    them,    which    will    increase    the    general 
industrial  intelligence  and  efficiency  of  those  who  must  become  wage- 
earners  at  the  earliest  possible  time. 

7.  The   methods    and   processes   employed    in   industrial   courses 
should  be  organized  about  the  making  of  useful  projects,  rather  than 
abstract  exercises  which  result  in  a  mere  waste  of  material  or  scrap. 

8.  The   products   resulting  from  the  industrial  activities  of  the 
school  shops,  while  useful,  should  not  be  such  as  to  involve  unfair 
competition  with  the  industries  of  the  community. 

9.  >So  far  as  practicable,  the  products  of  the  school  shops  may 
be  those  classes  of  articles  of  equipment  and.  supplies  required  for 
use  in  the  school  system  itself,  and  articles  which  are  not  produced 
in  the  community. 

10.  The  different  lines  of  industrial  work  should  be   taught  by 
teachers  who  are  themselves  skilled  workers  in  the  processes  to  be 
taught 

11.  The  programs  of  the  industrial  courses  should  be  based  on 
a  study  of  the  requirements  of  the  pupils  to  be  taught.     Careful  ex- 
perimentation in  various  cities   seems  to   have  demonstrated   that  a 
six-'hour  day  produces  the  most  efficient  results  for  pupils  of  fourteen 
to  Sixteen  years  of  age. 

12.  The   classes   should   be   small   enough  to   make   efficient   in- 
struction possible  in  complete  processes  from  raw  materials  to  fin- 
ished product. 

13.  The   industrial   courses  should  be  controlled,  under  the   au- 
thority and  direction  of  the  Board  of  Education,  by  advisory  com- 
mittees which  should  contain  equal  representation .,  of  wage-earners 
and  employers  in  the  industries  concerned. 

14.  The  Board  of  Education  should  employ  a  trained  -expert  to 
organize  and  direct  the  entire  scheme  of  manual  training,  household 
training,    and    industrial    courses,    and    give   him    sufficient;  freedom 
to  develop  the  work.  , 

15.  Nothing  should  be  done  that  will  result  in  diminishing  the 
facilities   and   opportunities   now   existing  for  those   boys   and   girls 
Who   desire  to  continue  in  a  course   of  generar  education  in  order 
to  prepare  for  high  school,  college,  technical  or  professional  school, 
etc.     Rather,   these   facilities   should   be.  extended   and   improved   in 
every  way  possible,  and  made  available  for  an  increasing  number 

127 


of  individuals.  The  school  system  must  provide  opportunities  for 
all  boys  and  girls  who  are  qualified,  and  have  the  ambition,  to  pursue 
higher  courses  in  professional  training  that  are  equal  in  every  respect 
to  those  provided  for  industrial  education. 

16.  A  careful  study   should  be  made  of  local  conditions,  and  a 
modest  beginning  made  in  those  directions  where  the  needs  seem  to  be- 
most  immediate  and  pressing,  subsequent  expansion  being  based  on 
continued  study  and  experimentation. 

17.  Provision  should  be  made  of  opportunities  for  supplemental 
instruction  in  general  education,  or  industrial  education,  or  both,  ror 
workers  already  engaged  in  the  industries. 

Course  of  Stndy,  Geography,  History,  Arithmetic*  etc. 

1.  If  the  directions  in  the  course  of  study  were  expanded  into- 
a  syllabus  of  each  subject,  and  the  requirements  under  each  grade 
stated  under  subject  'headings  rather  than  by  pages  in  the  text  books,, 
it  would  have  added  usefulness. 

2.  The   division  of  the   time   allotted  to   given   studies   between 
study  and  recitation  'has  much  to  commend  it. 

3.  The  work  in  geography  deserves  special  commendation. 

4.  The   work   in   history    and   citizenship    ought   to    receive   the 
same  earnest  attention  that  has  made  the  work  in  geography  so  satis- 
factory. 

5.  In  arithmetic  the  emphasis  is  rightly  placed  on  fundamental 
operations   and  intelligent  solution   of  problems.     Bridgeport    pupils 
Who  complete  the  sixth  grade  take  high  rank  in  this  subject. 

6.  It  would  be  well  to  make  careful  study  of  the  effect  of  the 
relatively   high    requirements   in    arithmetic    upon   promotion,    partic- 
ularly in  the  lower  grades. 

English. 

1.  The  work  in  English  lacks  unity.     Spelling,  punctuation,  and 
technical  grammar  are  taught  as  ends  in  themselves,  not  as  aids  to 
self-expression. 

2.  The  course  of  study  in  English    is    indefinite    and    general. 
Technical  grammar  is  given  more  time  than  composition. 

3.  Reading  is  taught  in  a  uniform  manner  throughout  the  system. 
The  method  used  is,  for  the  greater  part,  based  upon  a  knowledge  and 
use  of  phonetics.     Objective  teaching   is  thus   neglected.     The   same 
texts  are  used  in  the  schools  composed  of  foreigners  as  in  those  at- 
tended by  Americans. 

4.  There  is    little    uniformity    in    the  teaching  of  oral  composi- 
tion.    This  work,  however,  is  admirably  done  in  some  schools. 

128 


5.  Little  emphasis  is  given  to  plan  work.    As  a  result  the  com- 
positions   often    show    an   illogical    arrangement   of   thoughts   and    a 
slight  feeling  for  the  relative  value  of  ideas. 

6.  The  penmanship,  as  a  whole,  is  fairly  satisfactory. 

7.  The  work  in  each  grade  should  be  unified  with  English  as  a 
basis.    Spelling,  punctuation,  phonetics,  and  technical  grammar  should 
always  be  taught  as  aids  to  self-expression,  not  as  an  end  in  them- 
selves. 

8.  Revise  the  course  of  study  in  English  giving  definite  and  de- 
tailed directions  for  the  teaching  of  composition.     Give  more  empha- 
sis to  composition  teaching,  less  to  technical  grammar. 

9.  Give   language   lessons   preparatory  to   reading.     Depend   less 
upon  phonetics  and  more  upon  connecting  the  printed  text  with  the 
thought  to  be  conveyed  by  the  reader.     Use  in  the  schools  composed 
almost  entirely  of  foreigners  texts  expressly  prepared  for  the  language 
training  of  such  children. 

10.  Emphasize  oral  composition.     Train  the  children,  in  all  work, 
to  talk  in  paragraph  units.    Use  this  oral  work  as  an  immediate  prep- 
aration for  written  composition. 

11.  Have  the  children  make  outlines  before  attempting  any  oral 
and   written   composition   work.     This   should   develop   a   logical   ar- 
rangement of  thought  and  a  greater  feeling  for  the  relative  value  of 
ideas. 

12.  The.  course  in  English  literature  and  composition  offered  in 
the  Normal  School  should  aim  to  increase  the  scholarship  of  the  pupil- 
teachers  in  English  as  well  as  to  suggest  good  methods  of  teaching. 
Such  a  course  would  enable  them  later  to  do  original  and  progressive 
work  in  the  grades. 


129 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Letter  of  Transmittal 3 

I.  Preliminary  Comments  and  Recommendations 5 

II.  The  School  Board.'. 11 

III.  The  Financial  Support  of  the  School  System 12 

IV.  Distribution  of  Pupils  in  the  Schools 30 

V.  Proposed  Changes  in  Organization • 40 

VI.  The  City  Normal  Schook 43 

VII.  The  High  School 53 

VIII.  The  Industries  of  Bridgeport 61 

IX.  History 77 

X.  English    82 

XI.  Arithmetic  96 

XII.  General  Summary   124 


r~.l£-       V  >  -* 

SUit  *    **> 


Oaylord  Bra*. 

Makers 

Syracuse,  N.  V. 
PAT.  JAN.  21.1908 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


